Coastal Management

ICZM, from planning to implementation: success or failure?

Frank van der Meulen⁽¹⁾, Robbert Misdorp⁽¹⁾ and Gerrit Baarse⁽²⁾

(1) Coastal Zone Management Centre (CZM-Centre), Ministry of Transport,
Public Works and Water Management, POBox 20907, 2500 EX The Hague, The Netherlands
Tel: +31-70-311 4370 Fax: +31-70-311 4380
E-mail: f.vdmeulen@rikz.rws.minvenw.nl
⁽²⁾ Baarse Beleidsondersteuning & Consult B.V. Den Hoorn, The Netherlands
Tel: +31-15-257 1103 E-mail: g.baarse@ba-bv.nl

Abstract

An approach is presented to assess restrictions and obstacles for successful application of ICZM programs a priori. ICZM is seen as a cyclic process (problem recognition, planning, implementation and monitoring). To depict an ICZM setting, the approach deals with (i) the ICZM problem(s) and coastal area to be considered, (ii) the relevant phases of the ICZM process and (iii) the institutional setting in terms of actor groups and specific actors. Given a specific ICZM country setting, the assessment is based on four implementation requirement categories: (i) mandate, (ii) capacity, (iii) commitment and (iv) financial potential. As an illustration of the approach, a quick case study has been performed, using Egypt as a Mediterranean country. The approach does not pretend to be new. Besides the real assessment of potentialities and the identification of needs, the present approach offers a clear and structured overview of the technical, institutional and political information which form the basis for ICZM.

Portuguese coastal zones and the new coastal management plans

F. Veloso – Gomes⁽¹⁾ and F. Taveira – Pinto⁽²⁾

Abstract

Seven of the Portuguese Seafront Land-use Management Plans - POOCs have been approved and two similar plans are at the final stage of preparation. They cover all the coastal length. Their implementation and assessment could be the first step towards an integrated management of the Portuguese coastal zones. River Basin Management Plans - PBHs have been concluded and approved recently for all the country. But these plans miss the consideration of estuarine systems and some other issues related with coastal systems. The National Water Plan - PNA is under public presentation and discussion. Several "key messages" are presented in this paper as a contribution for the assessment of the proposals of this plan in issues related with coastal waters.

ICZM in Egypt: Fuka-Matrouh CAMP project

Ibrahim Abdel-Gelil⁽¹⁾, A. G. Abul-Azm⁽²⁾ and Ivicia Trumbic⁽³⁾

Abstract

The coastlines in Egypt comprise more then 3000 Km along the Mediterranean and the Red-Sea. The coastal area of Egypt, however, is under severe and increasing pressure. After passing the law for the environment (Law 4) in 1994, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was given specifically, in a broader sense, the authority to implement this law. In this respect, the EEAA formulates the general policy and prepares the necessary plans for the protection and promotion of the environment. Also, it follows up the implementation of such plans in co-ordination with competent administrative authorities. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is one of the areas that are regulated and addressed in law 4/94. Framework programme for ICZM in Egypt had been issued in 1996. The present paper presents the results of a pilot project financed by the Mediterranean Action Programme Coastal Area Management (CAMP), namely "Fuka-Matrouh-Egypt" project, and implemented by the Priority Action Plan / Regional Activity Centre. It also presents the methodology followed in the study and the experience gained nationally that would lead to the sustainable development of the Northwest Egyptian Coast.

Public participation in major coastal zone planning decisions

David Johnson ⁽¹⁾ and Suzan Dagg ⁽²⁾

Abstract

The case is made in this paper for early and integrative public participation in planning decisions concerning proposals for major development in the coastal zone. This is perhaps easy to subscribe to in theory but much more difficult in practice. Currently the extent and timing of public involvement in such decisions varies widely. A key benefit is the legitimacy that public participation provides to the planning process and, perhaps as a result, a variety of public involvement methodologies have emerged. Important considerations include which sections of the public to involve and at what stage in the decision-making process to involve them. The multidisciplinary nature of coastal zone issues will tend to engage a wide variety of stakeholder groups who in turn will influence the topics for discussion. A major port expansion proposal in the UK is used to illustrate a range of ways in which the public can be involved. The case study also highlights that public participation is an uncertain science, and to be successful can require skilled personnel and significant resources. The paper concludes that more guidance for developers, some standardisation of public involvement, training for facilitators and a more responsible stance from some environmental pressure groups would be advantageous. The complexity of coastal decision-making, tensions between science and policy, and the inter-dependency of coastal activities mutually reinforce the view that inclusive participation is an important issue for all coastal communities.

James A. Griffiths⁽¹⁾ and Steve Morris

The current state of ICM in the UK is very much at a transitory stage, reflecting both the historical evolution of coastal management within Britain, and recent European and international policies that address the sustainable use of resources in coastal areas. The recently formed Pembrokeshire Coastal Forum in West Wales is a rural-based initiative (similar to other coastal fora already established in the UK), that aims to secure the participation of statutory, private, voluntary and independent community groups, in the development of an integrated strategy for the sustainable use of coastal resources. In addition to giving regulatory bodies the opportunity to present and receive feedback for management and planning proposals, the forum adopts a pro-active approach to community participation by providing a platform for community groups to address statutory authorities directly (regarding separate issues or concerns). In addition to examining the rationale behind stakeholder involvement within of coastal partnerships in the UK then, this study stresses the importance of identifying both real and perceived barriers to continued community participation within decision making processes, from the view-point of both regulatory bodies and community-based groups.

Helena Maria Granja

Abstract

Coastal zone management and conservation of many areas have rarely worked in tandem with so-called sustainable development, and even less so in ICZM, as is shown by the example of Portugal. Coastal zone management - or rather its absence - has irreversibly contributed to the gradual degradation of our natural heritage, including the landscape that is one of its key elements. Promoting conservation implies the understanding of what (geo)forms are, how and when they were generated, their longevity (dependent on the relation conservation/degradation), and the relationship with the ecosystems dependent on them. In a dynamical perspective of the coastal zone, management concepts inherent to conservation should be integrated. The evolution of the coastal zone depends on several natural and human-induced factors and processes, that have acted (and act) differently according to different areas. Some laws, such as the Domínio Público Marítimo (Marine Public Domain) and the Planos de Ordenamento da Orla Costeira (Coastal Border Management Plans) in Portugal, cannot completely achieve those purposes, as they are not adapted to a changing reality. To promote conservation and management of the coastal zone it is important to understand not only present-day factors and processes, but also those that have been active in the recent geologic past. To understand the processes it is necessary to find the palaeoenvironments recorded in the sediments that show those indicators that have been active (and will be active) through time. Through some examples of the coastal zone of Northwest Portugal, it will be shown how climatic, sedimentary, and neotectonic factors interacted in a very recent past, contributing to the evolution of the coastal zone.

Legal and International Issues

Legislation on coastal planning and management in Spain

Míriam Villares, Laia Oroval and Rosa Junyent

Abstract

The paper presented at MEDCOAST 2001 is a theoretical reflexion on the main principles that have led coastal planning and management in the international geo-political context, particularly in the European scenario. It provides an overview of the international conventions and recommendations for the proposals that have arisen over the last three decades in the field of coastal planning and management. On a parallel, a definition is presented of the coastal space limits (coast, coastline and area of coastline influence) submitted to the political and ruling context of the laws that affect the Spanish coastal territories. As the paper develops, it will describe a model for territorial occupation, extended fro the most part along the Mediterranean coast. This has generated in a most spectacular way, an agglomeration of all kinds of activity along the coastline. The result is not exempt of error as it developed under cover of the old Law of Coasts of 1969. Later, the current Law of 1988 has created a new framework for coastal planning where the central government, the autonomous governments and local authorities all share in the responsibilities. Lastly, the paper will describe some of the consequences of applying such legislation after a decade of its coming into force. One fundamental aspect is dealt with in depth that refers to restrictions and uses that affect the beaches.

To develop Russian legal policy on coastal area management

Elena E. Andreeva⁽¹⁾, Ioulia R. Davletbaeva⁽²⁾, Yuriy G. Mikhaylichenko⁽³⁾ and Alexandre N. Vylegjanin⁽⁴⁾

Abstract

As everywhere in the world, Russia pays much more attention now to coastal area management. The main objective of the management in the region in question is to harmonize interests of immediate consumption or use of coastal resources and the need to ensure their long term sustainability. The key issues that have arisen in this context in Russia, as in many other countries, where the collision of interests has already reached a critical stage, can be resolved through adequate management. It means, i.e. feasible overcoming of the following handicaps:

1. overlapping jurisdiction of central and regional powers;
2. competition between resource users;
3. ineffective conflict resolution mechanisms;
4. lack of nationally or locally adapted coastal policies decision-making process.

One of the main objectives of the presented paper is to shape the realistic concept for the future legislative developments of the integrated coastal area management. The coastal regions of the Black sea and the Sea of Azove can be considered as ones where political and legal difficulties as well as initiatives for updating management are concentrated.

Preserving water quality and improving wastewater in Japan

Nobuo Kumamoto

Abstract

Law and policy concerning water and wastewater play quite important role for preserving quality of water and sustaining recycling system of wastewater. The developing process of laws and policies relating to this matter may suggest us what we should do next for achieving our common goals of keeping quality of water in our society. Various legal tools may also tell us what kind of policies are the most effective and how we should operate them to the problems before us. In addition, decisions of courts rule on the delicate theoretical questions between /among concerned parties of water related matters. Thus judge made laws can be transferred to the countries acceptable of the results of comparative legal studies.

Transforming problems into opportunities in the oceans-the Aegean Sea

Şule Günes

Abstract

The Aegean Sea along with the Turkish Straits and the Black Sea, constitutes a short seaway that links Eastern Europe and Eurasia to the Mediterranean and outer oceans. This narrow and environmental fragile body of water, which is used by the littoral states and international community for variety of uses of the oceans is not immune from controversy of claims in between Greece and Turkey. Their common Ottoman past and the alliance in NATO did not prevent these two states to lock themselves into their positions concerning the Aegean issues for decades. In the second half of 1999 a new phase of détente is recorded in the Turkish-Greek relations which decreased the tensions and promoted cooperative efforts in the region. The purpose of this paper is to search for prospects of wider cooperation in the oceanic matters in between Turkey and Greece basing on the dialectics ‘transforming problems into opportunities’ inherent in oceans and oceans governance.

Port state control in Turkish law and its enforcement in Turkish ports

Huriye Kubilay

Abstract

Turkish Port State Control regime is based on international conventions and regional programmes to which Turkey is an active party. This paper reviews these international conventions and regional programs. The reasons of port state control enforcement have also been examined in this paper. Regional programs; Mediterranean Memorandum of Understanding and Black Sea Memorandum of Understanding, enforcement of port state control and port state control officers in Turkish Ports, conclusion and proposals are the main subjects of the paper.

Coastal Protection and Conservation

Estonian coast: structure of land cover and level of protection

Üllas Ehrlich⁽¹⁾, Peep Krusberg⁽²⁾ and Kalju Habicht⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Detailed analysis of land coverage of the Estonian coastal zone is presented based on Estonian laws on coastal zone management and CORINE Land Cover (CLC), protected areas and administrative division data of Estonia. By law coastal zone is defined as a 200 m wide buffer started from the mean sea water level line. Use of CLC makes results comparable with other European regions as compilation of CLC data has been completed in almost whole Europe. Analysis includes also protected areas showing the level of protection of the coastal zone and administrative division with revealing the distribution of land coverage inside the coastal zone by counties.

Strategy of plant protection in Black Sea coastal zone

Evgeny B. Gol'din ^(1,2,3)

Abstract

The Black Sea coastal land is an ancient agricultural region with extremely wide and various structure of crops and abundant biological diversity of pests and stimuli of plant diseases. The problems of plant protection were always important in this area and now they are more actual than in the past. Distribution of chemical pesticides leads to the accumulation of toxic compounds in coastal ecosystems. It has disastrous consequences for environment and human health and activities. We can see forming of steady varieties and races of the most dangerous pests, including quarantine species and carriers of plant diseases. They are more resistant to chemical pesticides than their natural enemies (predators, parasites and competitors). An effective solution of this problem is a partial or total (in some cases) replacement of traditional insecticides for the new biological means of pest control, in particular microbial preparations. It is necessary to extend their arsenal and to plan effective strategy of pest control management in coastal zones without any damage for environment. It is reasonable to realize the search of new preparations among natural substances, using the coastal natural sources, such as secondary metabolites of high plants, seaweeds, microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, cyanobacteria, microphytic algae, protozoans) or invertebrates. The author’s suggestions are turned to design of the special program including a number of interconnected projects. They contain a complex of scientific, research and design works, from research to introduction in coastal agriculture. Their realization will be a significant step to creation of the new highly effective and unrivalled preparations for integrated system of plant protection and pest control.

Ileana Espejel, Guillermo Aramburo, Claudia Leyva, Yrma Cruz, Luis Carlos Bravo and Juan Diego Flores

Abstract

The Mediterranean type of vegetation in the Baja California seaside has been severely modified due to demographic growth and agriculture, urban and tourism activities. Land use change in the last 26 years has been studied and used to propose an integrated coastal zone management plan. Different land use intensities have been defined in order to protect this important and endangered type of vegetation; as well, alternative economic activities have been proposed. The region has been divided in seven zones according to land use change rate and actual dominating land use. Botanical and socio-economic indicators have been identified and an environmental quality index has been developed. Maps from 1973-1985-1993 and 1999 have been produced. Land use capability methods have been applied through two regional ordinances (one for urban sites and one for agricultural sites) that have been proposed to the state and local governments. The local actors together with the research team have designed different specific management plans for protected lands, ecotourism or revegetation.

MedWetCoast: a pragmatic way to integrated coastal zone and wetland management

Fabrice Bernard

Abstract

The consecutive pressures resulting from the development of tourism and the concentration of populations on the Mediterranean coast have no equivalent and are on the rise. In this context, the MedWetCoast project, which was launched in 1999, endeavours to develop new approaches to the protection of wetlands and coastal areas through a pragmatic integrated management confronted with the reality of local situations. While preserving a “classical” conservation approach centred around the biodiversity of sites, MedWetCoast strives for integrating in their management a maximum of external factors to the site that have repercussions on these areas so much on the local level (population, urban planning or development projects, actions on the catchment area…) as on the national one (legislative and regulatory evolutions, town and country planning projects…). This article aims at taking stock of the practices already undertaken since the launching of the project and to measure their advantages and their limits.

Michelle Cassar

Abstract

This paper examines the case of two specially protected areas on the Maltese coast, the management of which is currently the subject of a 3-year EU-funded project under the LIFE-Third Countries program. Project partners are the Euro-Mediterranean Centre on Insular Coastal Dynamics (ICoD), the Gaia Foundation and the Ministry for the Environment of Malta. The sites under consideration are the Ghajn Tuffieha area on the Northwest coast of Malta, and the Ramla Bay area on the island of Gozo. Both these sites comprise a number of features of ecological and scientific importance at a national level, and are in a relatively pristine state. Both sites are however prime recreational areas, hosting thousands of visitors especially during the summer months. The challenge in managing these sites in a sustainable manner is therefore to protect their unique ecology while simultaneously controlling and managing the human activities taking place there. The following sequence of activities is being implemented at both sites: surveys of the resources present (biodiversity, habitats, geological and hydrological features, and archaeological heritage), implementation of first intervention measures necessary to prevent further degradation, and the drawing up and implementation of site-specific management plans, including rehabilitation and protection of biodiversity and habitats, regulations for site-use, and awareness raising and educational measures. The management structure of this project provides support for the concept of decentralisation of the management of protected areas. The involvement of non-governmental organisations in the direct management of these sites, under joint government/EU funding, is an important aspect of this project. This paper thus presents the project as a model for similar initiatives for the management of protected sites in the Mediterranean.

Monitoring and preservation of the littoral and marine ecosystems

Habib Ben Moussa⁽¹⁾, Fadhel Baccar⁽²⁾, Ridha Kehdhir and Saba Guellouz

Abstract

The development of human activity on the coast has been contributing to the degradation of environment with appearance worrisome phenomena such as:

• littoral ecosystem degradation,
• the urban pressure on agricultural lands and the natural zones,
• infringement on Maritime Public domain,
• beach erosion
• appearance pollution signs.

That’s why it’s necessary to implement an intervention system with technical, scientific, institutional tools capable to control the effects of this pressure. To identify the measures of conservation and lead the actions of protection and rehabilitation in the best conditions, it is necessary to have one tool of collection and analysis of information about the coast. Several gaps can be noticed:

• Often the actions are led within the framework of projects, they stop just later.
• The international financing are not carried on by national financing
• Sometimes it is a reaction to a phenomenon which stops after its disappearance
• Lack of coordination.
• There is no optimisation of investigation means and of takings
• This system should allow :
• To know either ground or marine fringe coast evolution
• Predict any event that it is natural or anthropological
• Intervene effectively and in time to remedy any nuisances or damages
• Facilitate the protection and rehabilitation operations

The system should insure:

• The intensification and the capitalisation of the current actions;
• Integration of the existing tools and the bodies concerned by the coast;
• The distribution of information through specific networks; Elaboration of bulletins and periodic reports on coast state.

Endangered Species

Propagation and conservation of endangered bulbous species in the Mediterranean region of Turkey

Abstract

Turkey is one of the richest country in variability and population sizes of fauna and flora because of its unique geographical site where is the meeting ground of three phytogeographical regions; Euro-Siberian, Irano-Turanian and Mediterranean. Geophytes (bulbous plants) have a good share in Turkish flora and many of them are endemic. A number of the Turkish geophytes are facing with extinction because of heavy digging and collecting. Flower bulb exporting firms are preferring to collect them from nature as in many other wild plant species. Three of the Turkish geophytes-cyclamen, snowdrops and stenbergias are under threat and they, therefore, were put on Appendix I (seriously under threat) of CITES. The purpose of this research is to find out the most easiest and suitable method(s) for propagating and cultivating them under sustainable principles and their conservation. Our research and the others showed that snowdrops are the most difficult ones to be propagated so far by known methods. Especially, Galanthus elwesii-Taurus snowdrop, has certain drawbacks including long lasting dormancy and vernalization. However, our research proved that this species could be cultured under certain environmental conditions and cultural methods even in sustainability principals. Cyclamen is an easy one to propagate in comparison to snowdrops. Nevertheless, these three endangered genus of Mediterranean region, particularly in Antalya province, still need further and detailed researches.

Imed Jribi⁽¹⁾, Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai⁽²⁾ and Abderrahmen Bouain⁽¹⁾

Abstract

The loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta is the most important species observed in Tunisia among the three sea turtles in the Mediterranean. The Kuriat islands (large and small Kuriat) are the most important nesting sites. The beaches of two islands have been monitored since 1997. In this note, we try to present the results of turtle nesting activity during the campaign 2000 and mainly the clutch sizes, the hatching and emergence success of 13 nests and the nesting females and hatchlings sizes.

Conservation of monk seals (Monachus monachus) and ecotourism

Tuncay Neyişçi

Abstract

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus, Hermann 1779) is identified as one of the Europe’s most critically endangered mammal species whose population declined rapidly and drastically. During the last 30 years, a series of scientific conferences focusing on monk seals were held around mediterranean, (such as Rhodes 1978, Genoa 1985, Starsbourg 1986, Athens 1988, Texel 1990 and Arta 1998). Considering the importance of direct killing, entanglement in fishing gear, human disturbance and the deterioration and the loss of habitat as the major factors influencing the population decrease, all these conferences emphasized that the monk seals existing within the mediterranean, are under direct or indirect threat from the increased pressures of tourism. Monk seal numbers were shown to have declined in inverse proportion to tourism’s growth. Despite the existence of the protective cover of international agreements of Barcelona-1976, Bern-1979, Bonn-1979, etc. and the establishment of protected areas including monk seal pupping sites, the population of monk seals still suffers a rapid decline and declared as being on the verge of extinction. This paper is going to study the conservation issue of monk seals surveying around Bodrum Peninsula from an ecological perspective and try to develop an ecotourism concept suitable to local circumstances and values. Conservation strategy is to be based on sharing not isolation and should also allow to co-evolution of the related species or stakeholders. It is difficult to gauge the tolerance of the monk seal to disturbance, it has also been speculated that, if shielded from harassment, the species might conceivably regain the trusting nature. The fear of humans shown by the monk seals may be a behavior learnt from experience rather than an inherited trait. Men and monk seals, both have the potential to change their behaviors against each other if proper and rationale approaches are followed. Ecotourism may function as an adhesive agent by bringing stakeholders together and creating income to not only the investors but to the related locals as well. Based on a report prepared for the monk seals surviving around Bodrum Peninsula, the paper intends to suggest a strategy for the conservation of the endangered species and affected bodies.

The alterations of the Mediterranean coastal landscapes

M. Caterina Redini

Abstract

The Mediterranean necessitates coordinates for his environmental safeguard of actions and the landscape is a strategic resource for the future and the base on which support the politics of sustainable development of the Country (Italy). The landscape constitutes a knot of convergence of social practices and of public different politics, in this strategic picture that have been examined, all during these last two years (1999-2000), different choices, initiatives, objective that the national institutions, regional and Italians premise will develop in the next future. The coastal areas are those where it is necessary find specific original forms of development. The coastal areas represent a precious resource from the point of cultural view, landscape, tourist and economic for Italy and for the complete Mediterranean. They represent an element of fundamental attraction of our territory and a big opportunity of development economic legacy to plans of conservation and exploitation of the nature, that it you could have positive relapses on the complete national territory and on the Mediterranean.

Robert Morgan ⁽¹⁾, John Briggs ⁽²⁾ and Elizabeth A. Wild ⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Current (2001) UK Government policy is that up to 7% of total UK electricity generating needs may have to be met by wind energy by 2010, compared with <1% at present. Half of the increase may have to come from offshore wind turbine arrays. Scenically attractive coasts might be amongst the sites considered. This project sought to investigate at a pilot scale, the viability of measuring the effects of various offshore structures such as wind turbine arrays, on perceived quality of seascapes. Beach user surveys (total n = 130) were conducted at four beaches in Pembrokeshire, Wales, UK. Colour digital still photographs from a mixture of “scenic” and “non-scenic” beaches were used with some photographs of scenic beaches digitally manipulated to add items such as oil/gas rigs, wind turbines and cargo vessels in varying numbers and at various positions. Sets of 20 photographs were shown to beach users in conjunction with a questionnaire in which they were asked to evaluate scenic quality on a scale of zero to ten. Responses appeared to be consistent and reproducible, implying that future, more detailed studies in this area could be straightforward. Oil/gas rigs reduced scores to the greatest extent and marine cargo vessels appeared to have the least effect. Wind turbines had an intermediate but substantial effect on scores. The addition of multiple wind turbines reduced the scenic quality of the most “scenic” beaches to the level of typical “non-scenic beaches”. The study suggested that widespread installation of offshore wind turbine arrays could severely impact coastal scenic quality and affect coastal tourism revenues.

A. T. Williams⁽¹⁾, A. Ergin⁽²⁾, A. Micallef⁽³⁾ and A. Uras⁽⁴⁾

(1) Department of Applied Sciences, University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd,
Wales, UK. Tel / Fax: +44 1656 783928
E-mail : allan.williams@virgin.net
⁽²⁾ Civil Engineering Department, Middle East Technical University, Ankara,
Turkey Tel: +90 312 210 5441 E-mail: ergin@metu.edu.tr
⁽³⁾ ICOD, Foundation for International Studies, University of Malta, St Paul
Street, Valetta, Malta Tel: +356 240746 E-mail: micallef@icod.org.mt
⁽⁴⁾ WWF Mediterranean Program Office, Via Po, 25/C, Roma, 00198, Italy.
Tel: +39 068 449 7425 Fax: +39 068 413866
E-mail: auras@wwfmedpo.org

Abstract

The study of landscape aesthetics is subject to much discussion and numerous difficulties. As yet, no one technique for landscape evaluation has been universally accepted as many methods encompass only sections of the overall landscape situation. The present study looked at the Leopold methodology which is site specific to rivers in S E Wales. Forty six parameters associated with a semi-quantitative scenic analysis technique were recorded and compared for each of 141 sites located on the 8 largest river basins in south east Wales, UK. The sites selected on each river were 8km apart and the study extended from the river Rhymney in the east to the river Tawe in the west. Additionally, a river/valley characteristic assessment of one river, the Afan, was carried out. Results from the highly urbanised narrow corridor S E Wales river valleys, indicated that river character assessment rather than valley character assessment served a much more useful role in delineating areas. In the case of these river valleys, it was far easier to assess the negative side of uniqueness values as the most unique locations tended to be highly industrialised, urbanised and had high amounts of pollutants associated with the sites. The most unique sites were found at river mouths and were negatively unique, i.e. an eyesore. The second most unique sites were positively unique or picturesque and usually found at tributary heads. Attractive sites did not appear to score as highly as has been evident on other work on the borders of the region.

Regional development of the Bulgarian Black Sea coast

Institute for Environmental Strategies, Lagera, Bl. 38, Entr. 2, App. 29, 1612 Sofia, Bulgaria. Tel / Fax: 003592 953 11 94
E-mail: dax@cit.bg

Abstract

Black Sea Region is one of the few regions with a great potential for economic development in Bulgaria. The last several years of region’s development are characterised by a transition from central social planned economy to market economy. A number of reforms started in this period concerning local self-government, finance and bank sectors, agriculture, forest and industrial development, education and healthcare sectors. Some new processes were initiated included the privatization and the accession of Bulgaria to the EU.

The paper presents:

• the weaknesses and the strengths of the economic, social and ecological development of the Bulgarian Coastal Zone;
• the strategic goals and the legislative frame for the development during 2000 – 2006;
• the main goals of the National Plan for Regional Development (NPRD) as an instrument of the regional policy;
• the achievements of the Regional Development Plans’ goals
• the major institutions responsible for coordinating the sector policies in regional development of the Varna and Bourgass Regions;
• the support of the Structural Funds of the EU.

The paper also provides a brief conclusion of the main achievements and general recommendations for the future activities in the priority areas for development.

Gain economic and eco-friendly access via functional waterfront development

Daniel S. Natchez

Abstract

A broad brush is used to tie together the various themes related to the importance of preservation and enhancement of the environment and quality marina/waterfront development providing access to the coastline and waters. The paper demonstrates that environmental enhancement, quality development and improved access by the public can be compatible, integrated and undertaken in a meaningful way and on an economically affordable basis. Attention is devoted to infrastructure requirements, tourism, the need to develop partnerships and addressing both the direct and indirect economic impacts of marina/waterfront developments, as well as the need to integrate the upland access, development and uses with the shoreline interface, in-water facilities and uses of the water, all while preserving and improving the environment.

The sea and the city: an urban ecological study in a coastal city, Antalya

Huriye Oğuz and Tuncay Neyişçi

Abstract

Because of its natural and cultural features, Antalya is one of the most important tourism centers of Turkey. Located on the Mediterranean coast, the city is decorated by many antique sites, picturesque bays, sandy beaches, biological diversity, water courses, waterfalls and forests embracing the sea. Particularly after 1950’s Antalya has undergone a very rapid process of growth, exceeding the average rate of the whole country and her population reached at a level, 600 000, in 2000s. During the last decade, Antalya grew towards almost all directions excluding south where the Mediterranean is located. Antalya is one of the fastest growing cities of Turkey. Rapid urbanization has caused the conversion of farming lands into construction sites which brought about the disappearance of citrus orchards, greenhouses, and vegetable fields. City plans, given the priority to the unearned incomes rather than ecological parameters, have further worsened the consequences of this dramatic conversion. In Antalya there is no other boulevard besides Dumlupınar to be able to carry the cooling -warming and refreshing effects of the sea into the deeper parts of the city. In the absence of ecological thinking, some main streets which have been accidentally located to carry the influence of the sea into the deeper parts of the city, became blocked by apartment houses within a few hundred meters from the coast. The cooling sea breeze, for instance, could not penetrate into the city. A study of the city plan of Antalya shows clearly that the sizes and the locations of the green areas of Antalya which cover an area of about 8 million m², were not determined on the basis of urban ecology principles. Only 1/10^th of this area (718.232 m²) has been planned and realized as a city park. The remaining green areas consist of campus of the university, graveyard and the courtyards of the state offices. The green areas are generally located along the Dumlupınar Boulevard (7 million m²), in a north-south direction. Due to its suitable orientation parallel to the prevailing sea wind directions, Dumlupınar Boulevard forms a corridor which links these green areas to each other. The rest of the green areas are randomly scattered and isolated from each other as to form green islands. The per capita green area in Antalya is decreasing gradually whilst her population expands and complaints of the city dwellers increase. This study aims to produce data on urban ecological imputs such as temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity, which were, so far, not much studied in Turkey. In order to document the changes of temperature, relative humidity and wind velocities on an axis from coast into the city, and 1488 measurements in total were made at 144 different locations for a period of twelve months. On the main streets opening to the sea the temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity measurements were made twice a month at 07 00, 14 00 and 21 00 hours regularly. Some of the main streets were in north-south direction and some others in east-west direction. Additional measurements were made in the street cross-sections. A set of measurements were made in one of the largest coastal city parks-Karaalioglu- of Antalya. The obtained data were then statistically evaluated by using “Mann-Whitney U Test” for analysis of variance. For multiple comparisons “Kuruskal-Wallis” method was picked up. The data have shown that the temperature within the city is 2.89 ⁰C higher than that of out side, independent of the orientation of the street. The temperature of the city park differs 2-11% from outside temperature. The relative humidity was found to be 8.9 % lower than the out side temperature. Parks are about 10% more humid than neighboring streets. Structures of the city dramatically decrease the wind velocities. Wind velocity measured in outside (2.45 m/sec) dropped down to 0.96 m/sec, The difference is about 1.5 m/sec. The decrease of the wind speed in parks was found to be even higher. It was concluded that, the influence of the sea on coastal city - Antalya can not be carried deep into the city. Excluding a narrow zone (200-250 ms in width) facing the Mediterranean the rest of the city is cut off from all influences of the sea.

Nihal Şenlier

Abstract

The land use for tourism of coastal areas can be classified as in shore and on shore. The distinction among them can be observed with marinas, yachting harbours, mooring places etc. for the case of in shore; and day time accommodation facilities, hotels, motels, restaurants, etc., for the case of on shore. While assessing the fast development of tourism in the western and southern coasts of Turkey and the density of related land uses, the importance of the potential effect of the said land use, from the view point of sustainability, on the neighbouring settlement is easy to perceive. In this respect, the important point is to prevent the development of ungoverned settlement forms. Such settlements usually develop in an uncontrollable and rapid manner for the name of maximising the potential income that tourism might bring but jeopardise the sustainability of coastal areas. Land uses for tourism either develops integrated to an existed settlement or such developments motivate the development of new settlements attached to them. In both cases these land uses appear as being the basic factor which shapes the development of settlements around them. Development form in a sustainable manner of a settlement in a coastal region is a concept that covers economical, cultural, and social aspects as well as the physical dimensions. From this perspective, the importance of proper development forms for the settlements in the coastal area is obvious. In this study, examples on settlements in the southern and south-western coasts of Turkey shall be provided; the interactions between settlement forms and in-shore and on-shore land uses for tourism shall be explored and suggestions shall be developed for the sustainable utilisation of natural and cultural environment.

Sherine Khalil

In this paper, several options are proposed for community involvement in St. Katherine protected area, South Sinai through ecotourism activities ranging from Safari Guides and trail interpreters, to Bedouin managed ecotourism activities and Bedouin Owned Ecolodge Projects for the local Bedouin men as well a Bedouin woman handicrafts income generating for the local Bedouin woman. This research then attempts to explore a new vision for development of the local community while conserving the local cultural identity and the local environment at St. Katherine Natural Protectorate.

The coastal karst of Sardinia: a scientific and touristic resource

Sandro De Muro, Jo De Waele and Felice Di Gregorio

Abstract

The coastal karst areas of Sardinia represent extremely interesting territories both for scientific research as for what concerns their natural resources and landscapes. Especially the marine caves constitute a considerable resource for scientific multi-disciplinary research: e.g. the geomorphologic aspects, the evidence of Holocene Sea level and climate changes, the many different cave deposits with their paleontological and archaeological remains, the cave dwelling and marine ecosystems etc. Especially in Sardinia, that represents an ideal site because of its centrality in the Mediterranean and its geological stability during late Quaternary, the reconstruction of paleoclimate and Holocene Sea level changes based on the analysis of coastal cave sediments and concretions can provide very useful information. Furthermore, these areas generally represent under exploited but very important aquifers, showing many submarine resurgences sometimes with considerable flow rates. Thanks to the spectacular superficial karstic forms and the large number of caves, these areas also form an important attraction for tourists. The study of these scientific features of the coastal karst areas of the Island has been performed in different periods by several mostly Italian research groups, and in this work, besides the most recent discoveries and analysis, the Authors summarise the state of the art in Sardinia and the state of conservation of these karstic coastal landscapes. On a map of Sardinia are represented the different coastal karst areas (Capo Caccia-Punta Giglio, Balai, Capo Figari, Island of Tavolara, Gulf of Orosei, Capo Sant'Elia, Capo Teulada, Monte Sarri-Porto Pino, Maladroxia-Island of Sant'Antioco, Coast of Nebida-Buggerru, S'Archittu-Sinis) and the most important coastal karst forms, such as submarine springs, the caves, the rock arches etc. For each area has been compiled a short chart containing a general description and an up to date situation of the geological, cultural and environmental resources. Recently a study has been started in order to enhance our knowledge and to give our contribution for their integrated and sustainable development.

Geosites and touristic development of the karstic coastline of southwest Sardinia

Annalisa Arisci, Jo De Waele, Felice Di Gregorio, Ferrucci Ivan and Follesa Roberto

Abstract

In the coastal karstic region that spreads from Buggerru in the North to Nebida in the South (SW-Sardinia) can be found numerous interesting geotopes, biotopes and several places of social and cultural interest that deserve tutelage and valorisation. This mostly rocky coastline is characterised by the presence of a Cambrian sequence prevalently composed of limestones and dolostones and only locally of phyllites. These rocks have been involved in two main tectonic cycles and have been worked by different processes leading to the actual geomorphology, characterised by a karstic landscape, many suggestive folded structures and interesting sites of mining archaeology. A correct fruition of these environmental and cultural monuments is necessary both to preserve and to valorise them; therefore they have to be properly managed taking into account their carrying capacity in order to preserve their original natural conditions. In this work, the authors describe and classify these geological monuments and cultural remains and the botanical and faunistic interest of the different areas with the aim to propose an integrated model of sustainable development of this exceptional coastal landscape. This model is based on several thematic maps (geology, geomorphology, land-cover and -use, industrial archaeology, etc.) according to which have been proposed the institution of a natural reserve with specific geological and geomorphologic sites and the creation of several tourist circuits that are the basis for a further valorisation of this territory.

Funda Öztürk Kerestecioğlu

Abstract

“Tourism facilities destroy the natural beauty of our coast” This is idea of local people in Antalya where is the important spot for international tourism (Research-based sentence: Resident Attitudes Toward Tourism Impacts in Antalya; Korça, 1993). "Visitors effect negatively our daily life" This is another idea of local people at Uzungöl which is lake forest settlement and important spot for national tourism (Research-based sentence: What Local People Think about Tourism Development and How They Want To Change Their Social Life and Their Physical Environment). 18 Years of tourism experiences, Turkish people, especially local people figure out that tourism destroy something. This is important because the perception and attitudes of residents towards tourism and tourist are likely to be an important planning and policy consideration for the sustainable development, marketing and operation of existing and future programs and projects. After several decades of rapid growth, the tourism industry has reached a critical point in its development. We find ourselves in the midst of an environmental paradigm, where the old rules losing validity. On the other hand we have witnessed a growing interest in the relationship between tourism development and environmental quality. The search for ways to better integrate the needs of tourism with the protection of environmental resources has been given further recent impetus by the emergence of sustainable development as a management concept (Vellas and Béherel, 1995:xx). So we have to evaluate this impetus. This paper explains a method, which shows a way considering environmental impact of tourism development during the planning and design stage at the local level for preventing the environmental impact of tourism development.

Gianna Casazza⁽¹⁾, Cecilia Silvestri and Emanuela Spada

Abstract

A new legislation for the protection of inland surface waters, transitional waters, coastal waters and ground waters has been recently established in Italy. This law represents a new integrated approach, where all water bodies are considered as complex ecosystems to be studied in each of their components. The new concept of environmental quality of the water body, based on the ecological and chemical status, is introduced too. At the same time, the European Community approved, at the end of 2000, the European Water Framework Directive based on the same basic environmental concepts and criteria of the new Italian law. In this paper we analyze the Italian important points and innovations required by the new legislation for monitoring and classification of marine coastal waters. Details on definitions, parameters, analysis and monitoring programs are discussed. A comparison with the European Water Framework Directive is eventually shown; it underlines the specific characteristics of the Mediterranean sea, which have to be taken in consideration when applying the European Directive to this particular ecoregion.

Ayşe Muhammetoğlu ⁽¹⁾, Bülent Topkaya ⁽²⁾ and Habib Muhammetoğlu ⁽²⁾

Abstract

An integrated water and wastewater project has been started to protect the groundwater resources and the seawater quality in Antalya-Turkey. Initially, preliminary wastewater treatment units followed by a deep and long sea outfall system have been constructed. Now, second stage biological treatment units are under construction. A seawater quality-monitoring program has started three years ago around the sea outfall and it is still continuing. Some high values of the water quality parameters are determined occasionally due to intermittent pollution sources and illegal discharges of pollutants. The seawater quality complies with the Turkish standards for recreational activities.

Hakan Oğuz ⁽¹⁾, Bülent Topkaya ⁽²⁾, Ayşe Muhammetoğlu ⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Antalya province located on the Turkish Mediterranean coast has very clean seawater, which attracts many foreign and local tourists. Many streams carry different types of pollutants generated from the activities in their catchment areas to Antalya Bay and these pollutants are deposited in the coastal region. Boğaçay stream flowing directly into Konyaaltı Beach, a very important bathing beach for international tourists and local people, is the major land-based pollution source of the Bay. The major activities in Boğaçay catchment area are intensive sand-gravel quarry, agriculture and animal husbandry. Field and lab studies have been implemented on Boğaçay stream at five measurement and sampling stations for one year through March 2000 and February 2001 (Oğuz, 2001). The total flow and pollution loads for organic matter, total-N, nitrate-N, total-P, orthophosphate, solids and coliform numbers reaching to Antalya Bay have been determined. The resulting pollution loads show that high amounts of plant nutrients and solids are carried to the Bay. In order to protect the seawater quality of Konyaaltı Beach, all the sand and gravel quarry should be stopped, the irregular discharges of domestic wastewater need to be controlled. Due to the detection of high numbers of fecal coliform in the stream, which exceeds the standards for recreational activities, swimming in the stream and its mixing zone with the sea should be forbidden.

Massoud A.H. Saad⁽¹⁾, A.I. Beltagy⁽²⁾, M.R. Abdel Moati⁽¹⁾, M.A. Fahmy⁽²⁾ and W.M.A. Mahmoud⁽²⁾

Abstract

The western Harbor of Alexandria is one of the biggest and main harbors in the Mediterranean Sea, which is under stress from internal and external pollution sources. The different untreated pollutants affected dramatically the harbor compartments and biota. This study deals with the environmental characteristics of the harbor water to illustrate the influence of developmental projects of the country on this important coastal area. the surface and bottom water temperatures gave insignificant differences, due to shallowness of the harbor. the highest monthly temperature averages were registered in August and the lowest in February. Fluctuations of transparency resulted from drainage and wastewater discharges, phytoplankton density, suspended matter and water turbulence. Comparison of transparency values with earlier data confirms recent increase in turbidity. The higher surface pH values reflect increased photosynthesis in the surface and decomposition of organic load in the bottom water and sediments. The highest and lowest pH regional averages were matched with the maximum and minimum dissolved oxygen (do) averages. do was found at most locations and disappeared from few samples, in which hydrogen sulphide was detected due to acute organic pollution. Hydrogen sulfide was mainly observed in the warm season at stagnant heavily polluted locations. The lowest DO averages in summer reflect the increase in its consumption for decomposition of organic matter by elevation of water temperature. The significant positive correlation between surface DO and salinity confirms the increase in DO seaward far away from pollution sources. The higher surface chlorophyll-a values indicate surface accumulation of algal blooms and eutrophication problems. Statistical correlation between chlorophyll-a with transparency, temperature and pH illustrate that phytoplankton biomass was more affected by discharged wastes enriched with nutrients and organic matter.

Mohamed A.R. Abdel-Moati

Abstract

Alexandria coastal waters have been subjected for several decades to pollution stress from Land-Based Activities (LBA). The problem is identified as an industrial versus agricultural derived pollutants from one hand and sewage derived pollutants from the other. Which of these dominates? depends primarily on the disposal location and seasonal amplitudes. According to the type of stress, the coastal area is divided to 4 main zones of which zone A receives mixed industrial + agricultural discharge, B agricultural discharge, C sewage discharge and D receives mixed industrial / agricultural discharge. A location west of Alexandria was chosen as reference area for comparison. Six major outfalls as well as the receiving water were monitored for nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen), metals (Pb, Cd, Hg), Chlorophyll a and BOD₅. Long-term trends in concentrations of pollutants in the receiving water were evaluated using previously published data. Although industrial discharge exhibited high levels of contaminants, specially Pb, and till a short time Hg, its contribution to the total levels is small due to the increased agricultural load deriving mainly Cd and NO₃. BOD₅ levels reached >39.3 mg/l in semienclosed basins affected by sewage discharge. Untreated sewage has not only caused bacteriological contamination but elevated nutrients levels causing eutrophication problems where chlorophyll a reached >15 mg/m³ compared to <0.2 mg/m³ for the reference station. Metals levels are also significantly increasing during the last two decades. The residence time of pollutants, assimilation capacity and the expected reduction scenarios for treatment and cessation of the present discharge from LBA were evaluated to supply decision makers with necessary information. Accumulation of metals in marine organisms and sediments, destroying fishing grounds, immigration of endemic fauna & flora, appearance of new tolerant species and even the threatening of the submarine archeological sites are among the main consequences of LBA. The free connection with the open sea and the regular flushing of the coastal waters and its replacement with bottom neritic SE Mediterranean waters is considered a self purification for the system. Although the government efforts are devoted to complete cessation of all sewage outfalls dumping to the sea by 2002, industrialization pressure still needs to be regulated.

An approach for the best waste management program for marinas

Deniz Dölgen⁽¹⁾, M. Necdet Alpaslan⁽²⁾ and Ayşe G. Şerifoğlu⁽³⁾

Abstract

Marinas are such places that are located onto coastal waters, lakes, and rivers, and the various contaminants may be discharged due to the activities take place. Therefore the required abatement measures have to be taken in order to keep environment clean and healthy. Experiences from developed countries have shown that the most effective way to reduce the pollution in marinas is the implementation of waste management programs and to this end, Best Waste Management Programs (BWMPs) have been employed in USA and other developed countries. However, in developing countries lack of available financial sources and unawareness of clean marina concept may hinder the activities towards the application of BWMPs. The aim of this study is to address BWMPs in general and explain the waste sources and disposal methods for marinas and yachting activities. In this concept, Kuşadası Setur Marina in Turkey is investigated particularly as an example to the marinas in developing countries and the management measures taken in the marina is evaluated. The wastes generating from Kuşadası Setur Marina are introduced and the preventive measures against to pollution taken by marina are reviewed. Finally importance of the management programs towards the mitigation of pollution problems is emphasised.

Distribution of lithogenic heavy metals in surface sediments from İskenderun Bay, Turkey

Mert Avcı⁽¹⁾ and Musa Kazım Düzbastılar⁽²⁾

Institute of Marine Science and Technology, H. Aliyev Bulvarı No:10, İnciraltı, İzmir, Turkey.
Tel: +90-232-278 5565 Fax: + 90-232-278 5082
⁽¹⁾ E-Mail: avci@imst.deu.edu.tr
⁽²⁾ E-mail: musa@imst.deu.edu.tr

Abstract

Metal fractionation was studied in surface sediments from İskenderun bay, which contains an iron-steel complex, fertilizer industry, a busy harbour and sewage outfalls at the eastern corner to estimate typical sources and transport modes. Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Cr, Ni was examined of each 60 samples collected with Van Veen type grab sampler and concentrations have been determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. All the highest concentrations in lithochemical fractions were determined near shore of the bay. Lithogenic Cu and Zn enriched at western margin of the bay while Cr and Ni at eastern margin. Proportions of lithochemical fraction in total for Cu and Zn are low at eastern corner of the bay contained some industries; it suggests heavy metal pollution for this area. The distributions of the concentrations of Cr and Ni show several similarities. Most of the Cr and Ni in the sediments were associated with the lithochemical fraction. The enrichments in lithogenic fraction of both elements in eastern near shore sediments may be readily explained by the presence of ultrabasic peridotites and dunites including economic deposits in catchment areas of rivers, and these provide ready source of clastic material rich in Cr and Ni.

Şükriye Duman ⁽¹⁾, Muhammet Duman ⁽¹⁾ and Erol İzdar ⁽²⁾

Abstract

Eighty-five surface samples from the south-central Black Sea shelf consist predominantly of clayey silts and silty clays. The grain size data and the net sediment transport patterns suggest that the western part of this shelf is an area of east-directed active sediment transport. The eastern shelf is an area of major sediment deposition, except for localized nearshore zones. The sources of the shelf sediments are indicated by the total concentrations of 30 major, minor and trace elements in 59 surface samples. Multivariate factor analysis results show that 99.1% of the total variance can be explained by 5 factors. Factor 1 (Al, K, Nb, Si, Ti, Y, Zr) is an aluminosilicate factor that represents detrital clastic material. Factor 2 (As, Fe, Mn, P, Pb and minor loadings in Ba, Cu, V, and Zn) reflects the anthropogenic pollution by the Etibank copper mine and deposition in oxic and suboxic environment. Factor 3 (total organic carbon, Mg, S and minor loadings in Cl, Ga, K, Na and Rb) represents deposition under anoxic bottom waters and their associated elemental enrichments. Factor 4 and Factor 5 (sand, silt abundance, Ba, Ce and K, Rb, U) represents the biogenic activity and grain size effect. Multivariate factor analyses also show that uranium concentrations in the sediment appear to be controlled by sand fraction of the sediment.

An environmental study of the Monastir-Teboulba coastline (Eastern Tunisia)

Fouad Souissi⁽¹⁾, Radhia Sassi-Souissi⁽²⁾, Nouri Soussi⁽³⁾, Ayed Added⁽⁴⁾,
Aslem Jellouli⁽⁵⁾, Fadhel Baccar⁽⁶⁾, Saadi Abdeljaoued⁽⁴⁾

Abstract

The littoral of Monastir-Teboulba is a bay situated in eastern Tunisia, and characterised by a flat configuration where the depth does not exceed 3 m up to 2 km from the shoreline, in front of Khnis and Ksibet El Mediouni cities. Water circulation is restricted because of the presence of a series of shoals and a dense Posidonia herbarium, developed beyond the –2 m isobath. This configuration is responsible for the natural weakening of this environment, which is evidenced by the accumulation of large quantities of organic matter (OM). On the other hand, this littoral has been subjected, twenty years ago, to management works (accumulation of dredging products and digging of submarine channels) conducted for the installation of a fish farming station in the lagoon of Monastir; these works has contributed to the attenuation of water circulation. Moreover, the shore-flat of Monastir-Teboulba makes the receptacle of solid discharges carried by the drain of Khnis, drift currents and fluvial waters channeled by the hydrographic system (drain of Khnis and Oued Essouk), as well as the waste waters of the fish farming station. This environment has evolved towards eutrophication, and has attained now an advanced stage of degradation. The environmental study of this littoral is based on the geochemical analysis of OM and trace metals (Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn) in the fine fraction (< 63 µm) of the surface and core sediments as well as the analysis of surface marine waters. The results show that in the surface sediments the total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations are within the range 2-6 %; while the analysis of OM (C/N, hydrogen index «IH», and gas chromatography «GC») gives evidence of its composite origin (marine and continental), with the predominance of the marine fraction. The highest concentrations of Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb (up to 37, 30, 139 and 75 ppm, respectively) in the marine superficial sediments are also associated with the fine sediments and are confined to the area lying opposite Khnis and the drain outlet. The analysis of chemical fractionation of metals, has show that in the marine sediments Ni, Cu and Pb and at a lesser extent Zn, are attached to the OM and the residual fraction; whereas in the drain sediments all the metals are mainly associated with the residual fraction. The analysis of the core sediments has shown that the oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) run from –100 mV to –400 mV; while high TOC concentrations are maintained through several decimeters below surface (more than 65 cm). Consequently, one can suppose that this littoral has behaved, for a long period, as a trap for OM. The analyses have also shown that the Cu, Zn and Pb concentrations are relatively high (up to 30, 132 and 66 ppm, respectively) in the upper section of the sedimentary column (15-25 cm) and allowed the estimation of the local natural concentrations (LNC) for Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb. As a conclusion, by this study we demonstrate that the environmental degradation of this littoral is due to the attenuation of water circulations because of the intervening of natural factors as well as human action, along with the contribution of nutrients and OM coming either from the continent or from the decomposition of the composite (marine and continental) OM associated with the fine sediments in the shore-flat.

Heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Hg) in marine organisms from north Tunisian Coast

Lassaad Chouba ⁽¹⁾, Habib Amara and Amor El Abed

Abstract

In order to protect, control and evaluate the degree of chemical contamination of the Tunisian sea, an assessment of trace metals (cadmium Cd, lead, Pb and mercury, Hg) in common species (fish and shellfish) collected from lakes and Gulf of north Tunisia was conducted. Samples were collected from sites exposed to pollution, due to directly or indirectly rejected sewage from industrial unities. The experiment was realised during three years. An average concentration of heavy metals were determined yearly in the species muscles by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) using the methods described and recommended by IAEA / UNEP (1984). The yearly mean concentrations of Cd, Pb and Hg recorded in each species showed a not significant variability from year to year. This could be explained by the behaviour of each species and its biotope. The highest concentration of Hg and Cd were recorded in shellfish muscles. The Pb contents are variable in time but it remains lower than the limiting thresholds tolerated by WHO. This non alarming bio-accumulation requires, nevertheless a detailed attention for elimination and controlling sources of chemical pollution affecting the marine ecosystems and lakes.

Mercury in marine sediments and mussel tissues of Bizerte Lagoon, Tunisia

Nadia Mzoughi ⁽¹⁾, Teodor L. Stoichev ⁽²⁾, Amor El Abed ⁽¹⁾, Mohamed Dachraoui1 ⁽³⁾,
David Amouroux ⁽²⁾ and Olivier F. X. Donard ⁽²⁾

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the speciation of mercury compounds in marine sediments and mussel tissues collected in Bizerte lagoon, Tunisia during two seasons (summer and winter). To determine methylmercury and inorganic mercury concentrations in sediment samples, a microwave-assisted acid leaching technique with nitric acid solution (HNO3, 6N) is used for the selective extraction of mercury species. For biological tissues, the digestion procedure is using microwave-assisted dissolution in alkaline conditions with tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH, 25%). The determination is subsequently performed with an automated on-line analytical set-up involving derivatisation (i.e. ethylation or hydride generation) – cryogenic trapping – gas chromatography – atomic fluorescence spectrometry (D/CT/GC/AFS). Inorganic mercury concentrations in sediments are found to be highly variable, ranging from geochemical background levels at 24 ng/g to coastal sediments levels at 804 ng/g (dry weight). However, inorganic mercury concentrations average is 146 ng/g. No significant variations is observed between winter and summer seasons. Trace amounts of methylmercury are also observed in these sediments and are subject to further investigations for better quantification of this compound. In mussel tissues, preliminary results show that total mercury concentrations are also variable ranging from 19 to 289 ng/g (dry weight). The average concentration obtained so far is 160 ng/g. In these tissues, inorganic mercury is generally the major compounds contributing to c.a. 88% of total mercury concentrations. However, methylmercury concentrations are significant and homogeneous, ranging from 12 to 24 ng/g and averaging 19 ng/g. These methylmercury levels suggest that a fraction of the inorganic mercury load in the sediments of the lagoon undergoes methylation pathways.

Masmoudi W.⁽¹⁾, Romdhane M.S.⁽²⁾, Khériji S.⁽¹⁾ and El Cafsi M.⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Some millions larvae of mugilidae are collected yearly from coastal areas (river and channels) to grow out in continental lakes in Tunisia. This works is suggesting the monitoring of the bioaccumulation of an organochlorine pesticide (g HCH or lindane) in the flesh of three mugilidae species: Mugil cephalus, Liza aurata and Liza ramada. Results pointed out that the mean concentration of lindane in Mugil cephalus larvae (124 ng/g fat weight) was significantly higher than in the two other species (64 and 67 ng/g fat weight respectively for Liza aurata and Liza ramada). Mugil cephalus larvae were the less fatty species. It seems that the bioaccumulation of this pesticide depends on many factors as the water temperature, the dietary intake and the metabolic capability of these species towards the lindane.

Detection of enteric viruses in the Tunisian lagoons' shellfish

Essebai Elamri Dorsaf and Amor El Abed

Abstract

Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) has been used extensively to detect enteric viruses in environmental samples such as shellfish. Advantages of RT-PCR include its high detection sensitivity and rapid turn-around time. The aim of this study was to develop a rapid and simple processing procedure that can be used to extract and recover enteric viruses (hepatitis A virus (HAV), Norwalk-like virus (NLV), enteroviruses (EV), and astroviruses (AV)) from shellfish tissue collected in order to obtain a sensitive PCR detection. The results of viral contamination levels in the tunisian lagoons’ shellfish will be a very important mean to prevent sanitary risks.

Bacterial study of mesophyllic aeromonads distribution in shellfish

Monia El Bour., H. Attia El Hili, R. Mraouna and W. Ayari

INSTM, Rue du 2 mars 1934, 2025 – Tunisia. E mail: monia.elbour@instm.rnrt.tn

Abstract

Bacterial members of mesophyllic aeromonads species are ubiquitous known in various aquatic environments. Some of them can be isolated either from oligotrophic seawater, i.e the open sea, or from coastal environments which are enriched with nutrients coming from rivers and sewage. High density of Aeromonas sp in the aquatic environments can be used as biological indicators to determine the degree of water degradation. Also, they are implicated in several pathological diseases of aquatic organisms. In aim to characterise the most frequent genus of bacteria associated with shellfish samples, we studied one hundred eighty nine strains of Aeromonas isolated by monthly sampling from mussels and clams in three conchylicultural areas in Tunisian lagoons between may 1999 and September 2000. Biotyping methods utilised allowed us to identify 181 strains (96%) as Aeromonas hydrophila, 7 strains (3%) as Aeromonas salmonicida and one strain as Aeromonas sobria. Aeromonas hydrophila was the most prevalent species isolated in clams and mussels. According to the results obtained, we revealed several biotypes in this species. The antimicrobial typing was realized following standardized methods against fifteen different antibiotics. The antimicrobial screening showed that, all the strains identified were resistant to more than 2 different antibiotics. Resistance profiles to 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 antibiotics were common to a rate of 20% by each profile for the species Aeromonas hydrophila studied. Among the antibiotics tested, beta lactams, aminosids, macrolids, cyclins, flumequins and rifamycins had low effectiveness within Aeromonas species identified. It’s evident that multi resistance to antibiotics was so common to all the biotypes identified. Further assays are being to be done in purpose to investigate the genetical support of such microbial resistance.

VOLUME II

Coastal and Marine Biology

The Benthic vegetation in the Farwà Lagoon (Libya)

Gérard Pergent⁽¹⁾, Aslam Djellouli⁽²⁾, Abdulmaula A. Hamza⁽³⁾, Khalled S. Ettayeb⁽³⁾, Abdullah A. El Mansouri⁽⁴⁾, Fathi M. Talha⁽⁴⁾,
Mohamed A. Hamza⁽⁴⁾, Christine Pergent-Martini⁽¹⁾ and Frédéric Platini⁽⁵⁾

Abstract

Mediterranean ecosystems are of major ecological importance as compared to other biogeographical zones of the biosphere. Today, however, it would appear that a number of species are threatened whereas others proliferate (e.g. invasive species). In addition to the ecological problem that such changes represent in terms of biodiversity, there are also economic repercussions that cannot be overlooked (spawning and nursery grounds...). This study is part of the Action Plan for the conservation of marine plants in the Mediterranean, a project adopted during the 11^th meeting of the Barcelona Convention's contracting parties, held in Malta in October 1999. In light of both the extent of the Libyan coastline (over 2 000 km) and the presence of extensive seagrass beds in this region, it was decided that a preliminary study was necessary in this country, notably in the lagoon of Farwà. Three main objectives were set: (i) To collect information on the main vegetation formations, (ii) To identify the main human activities, (iii) To map the main habitats within Farwà lagoon. The scientific study was carried out from June 5^th to 15^th, 2000 in the Farwà lagoon. The mapping of the main benthic vegetation (phytobenthos) was achieved by compiling the field observations (transect method), and remote sensing of SPOT satellite images. The plant formations in Farwà lagoon cover an area of 1 820 hectares (65%). Three macrophyte species predominate, namely the marine phanerogams Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica, and the alga Caulerpa prolifera. These different species are present either as monospecific assemblages or as mixed populations. Their distribution within the lagoon can be described as follows:

• From the surface to a depth of 1 m, monospecific Cymodocea nodosa seagrass beds,
• From 1 to 2 m in depth, mixed formations of Cymodocea nodosa and Caulerpa prolifera,
• Deeper than 2 m (navigation channel), dense, monospecific Caulerpa prolifera meadows and patches of Posidonia oceanica (2 to 4 m²); this seagrass is also present from the end of the channel to the more central part of the lagoon.

The presence of dead Posidonia oceanica leaves (litter) should also be noted, as these form veritable mounds in the vicinity of the openings leading to open sea. These accumulations, which cover relatively small surface areas (0.6 %), are a very characteristic feature of Farwà lagoon. The decomposition of this plant matter will lead to high oxygen consumption and the release of hydrogen sulphide. The flora and fauna are very scarce in the vicinity of these formations. These Posidonia oceanica leaves, which come from the marine environment, are brought into the lagoon by the currents and tides; their accumulation in the vicinity of the channels is due to reduced hydrodynamic conditions within the lagoon (settling zone). The phenological analyses of Posidonia oceanica shoots sampled in the lagoon are similar to those from other stations in the Mediterranean, with the exception perhaps of the Coefficient A that is very low due to weak hydrodynamic conditions and limited herbivorous pressures. Conversely, the lepidochronological parameters of shoots sampled from the central part of the lagoon exhibit values that are substantially higher than those generally recorded in the Mediterranean (Pergent et al., 1995). The mean number of leaves produced annually is 9.9 (mean value for the Mediterranean: 7.5) and the rhizome growth rate is in the order of 35.7 mm.yr^-1 (mean value for the Mediterranean: 7.5 mm.yr^-1). Several past flowering events were also detected. This hypersaline environment would seem to provide optimum growth conditions for the species Posidonia oceanica.

Phenology of Posidonia oceanica along the Izmir coastline

Berrin Dural⁽¹⁾ and Gérard Pergent⁽²⁾

Abstract

The phenology of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica was carried out at two sites of the Aegean Sea (Urla-Iskele – Izmir Gulf and Akkum - Sigacik Bay), between 0.7 and 7 m depths. Several parameters were taken into consideration, including meadow density, leaf number, leaf biometry, flowering and fruiting. In Urla-Iskele, meadow densities exhibit values between 830 shoot.m^-2 at 1 m depth and 450 shoots.m^-2 at 5 m depth. In Akkum, mean meadow densities vary between 353 and 518 shoots.m^-2 as a function of site and meadow structure; the highest value is recorded at the deeper site (-4 to -7 m). The mean flowering density is low, it varies between 0.5 and 3.4%, with higher values between 1 and 2 m depths in Urla-Iskele and 5 to 7 m depth in Akkum. The phenological data (number of leaves per shoot, foliar surface area) confirm the low vitality of the Posidonia oceanica meadows in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean sea.

Caulerpa Genus in Tunisia

H. Langar^(1,3), A. S. Djellouli⁽²⁾ and A. El Abed^(1,4)

Abstract

In Tunisia three species belonging to the Caulerpa genus are currently inventoried: C. prolifera, C. racemosa and C. taxifolia. The first one, always inventoried among the marine flora elements of Tunisia where it is extremely common did not make object of discussion in this paper. C. racemosa is found in a great number of new localities of the Center and the South of Tunisian coast, but also in the North of the Country. These new observations raise the hypothesis of the multiplicity of the origins of the introduction of the species and suggest possible invasive potentialities. The general thallus, and more particularly the number, the shape as well as the arrangement of ramelli on fronds allowed us to identify four groups morphologically different. These groups could be either different systematic entities or polymorphic variations of a same taxa due to different ecological conditions. The Strain of Caulerpa taxifolia observed for the first time in Tunisia in the roadstead of Sousse on the beginning of the year 2000 is identical to that found in the other mediterranean localities (GenBank number AJ228960). On the date of March 31 2000, a sub-marine prospecting campaign revealed an affected area of about 350 hectares on 2 Km of a linear of coast. Colonies of C. taxifolia disseminated in the station appear in isolated spots form, in growing stage, with surfaces varying between 0,5 to 6 m² and located 20 to 100 meters to each other. The total covered surface was estimated to be between 0,5 and 1 ha.

Benthic flora in Ghar El Melh Lagoon (North Tunisia)

Abdessalem Shili ^(1,2), El Bahri Trabelsi ⁽²⁾ and Naceur Ben Maiz ⁽²⁾

Abstract

This work deals with biodiversity and distribution of benthic macrophytes in Ghar El Melh lagoon located in the North of Tunisia. Benthic flora were listed according to two successive campaign (summer 1999 and winter 2000). Some 24 species of macrophytes are identified: 7 red algae, 2 brown algae, 11 green algae, and 4 seagrasses. The seagrass Ruppia cirrhosa is the most dominant species. It is found in all lagoon parts, except in the West sector. Ruppia beds are usually associated with Cladophora in heterogeneous populations. The green algae Caulerpa prolifera is confined at the eastern part of the lagoon, mainly affected by sea water. In comparison with previous situations, many transformations were observed in biodiversity and spatial distribution of dominant populations. Thus, Cymodocea and Zostera beds which dominated in the seventies were replaced by Zostera and Caulerpa in the eighties and currently by Ruppia cirrhosa.

Upper reaches of Posidonia oceanica beds at “Marina” Station, Gulf of Hammamet (North Tunisia)

El Bahri Trabelsi ^(1,2), Abdessalem Shili ⁽²⁾ and Naceur Ben Maiz ⁽³⁾

Abstract

The communities of marine phanerogam in the gulf of Hammamet comprise mainly beds of Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica. Near the ‘Marinas” station, the upper reaches of Posidonia beds were at 1000m from the coast to the open sea at 12m depth. Medium density beds (50-80 % cover) had been observed in parallel strip in the northeastern zone. High-density Posidonia beds grow on sandy substratum and rarely rocky zones. They appeared well structured in a healthy and equilibrated aspect. Our observations showed that "Marina" station doesn't affect directly the phanerogam communities. Nevertheless, care must be taken to prevent pollution and excessive boating as evident consequences of increasing anthropogenic activities. Since seagrasses are an important indicator of environment conditions, and sensitive to natural and human stress. A monitoring program should be undertaken continuously to survey sedimentary dynamics and water quality. The initial feature was described, the upper reaches were determined and an initial map was established. The possible impacts were analyzed: first step short-term effect : dredging and mobilization of bottom material in relation with currents and turbidity. Second step long-term effect : working of the “Marina”, new hydrodynamic system, sedimentary movements, water quality and human activity.

Anthropogenic action impact on seagrass meadows of the Monastir Bay (Tunisia)

Zohra El Asmi-Djellouli⁽¹⁾, A.S. Djellouli, G. Pergent⁽²⁾ and S. Abdeljaoued

Abstract

The sea bottom of the Monastir Bay (Tunisia), which is situated between latitudes 35°50'S - 35°40'S and longitudes 10°47'S - 10°55'S, is occupied by important sea-grass meadows which are used here as bio-indicators for the assessment of the environment. Mapping, leaf shoot density counts, performed in Posidonia oceanica beds, as well as the phanerogam beds morphodynamic survey, together with a substratum sedimentologic survey, serve as a basis to establish a diagram of the sedimentary dynamics and evaluate the anthropic action impact. Our survey concerns 20 stations distributed throughout the bay. In most cases, a 400/m2 beam density indicates a sedimentary balance rupture. Besides, bare rhyzomes reflect a fragilised Posidonia oceanica bed. Zones situated beyond the isobath -6m, are covered by a plain bed that testifies to homogeneous enough streamlined conditions. Regions situated between the shore and -6m, are occupied by a rippled bed showing a more marked effect of surge and a more accentuated balance rupture. Close to the coast, the presence of a Ruppia sp bed testifies to a very reduced hydro-dynamism encouraging eutrophisation. Between Ruppia sp and Posidonia oceanica beds, we have a Cymodocea nodosa bed, indicator of intermediate conditions, underlines the fragile character of this zone. These observations in Situ are used in general, like tools of quantification of impacts of the inshore management and of the anthropic action on the environment of this coastal fringe.

Microalgae and man-made alterations in coastal lakes

Evgeny B. Gol'din ^(1,2,3)

Abstract

The consequences of human intrusion were investigated in man-made habitats of two lakes, laying in the different parts of Black Sea coastal region, - Sasyk (north-west) and Utrish (north-east). The contrary phenomena took place there - unnatural desalination (Sasyk Lake) and man-made increase of salinity (Utrish). The altered situation affected not only the structure of algae-vegetation as the main component of lake biota and primary link in trophic chains, but also the status of environment as a whole. In these cases investigations of cyanobacterial and microalgal communities in coastal lakes can be a key to solution of some problems and help to form a valid view on ecosystem and to make a forecast for the future. Using the comparative tests of isolated cyanobacterial strains of Microcystis aeruginosa from desalinated Sasyk Lake and the other parts of the region the increase of cyanobacterial biological activity and virulent characteristics in man-made habitats were demonstrated. The formed microalgal community was examined firstly in the closed lake in Utrish peninsula turned into the new salinizated "Dolphin Lake". The microphytic algae-vegetation of that small water body was characterized as the important factor indicating the status of captured cetacean health and environment. The problem of alteration of salinity level in coastal lakes leading to total reconstuction of complex frontier system of interspecific relations is discussed.

Seasonal change of macrobenthic fauna on enclosed tidal flat in Tokyo Inner Bay

Kazuhito Murakami⁽¹⁾, Yuichi Ishii⁽¹⁾, Yukihiko Tanaka⁽¹⁾, Kazuo Taki⁽¹⁾ and Hideki Tatsumoto⁽²⁾

Abstract

This study was conducted to obtain the information about the quality and the quantity of macrobenthos in an enclosed tidal flat, called Yatsu Tidal Flat, located in Tokyo Inner Bay and to assess the sedimental condition by the seasonal change of macrobenthic fauna. As results, 1) Species composition has been getting diverse and quantity of macrobenthos has increased in Yatsu Tidal Flat, 2) Yatsu Tidal Flat can be divided into 3 zones where are eastern sand area, western mud area and western end sandy mud area by diversity characteristics, 3) Environmental condition of Yatsu Tidal Flat was considered to be shifting from the further polluted condition to the polluted condition, from the viewpoint of macrobenthic fauna, 4) Unique ecosystem has been constructed in this enclosed tidal flat because of its closure circumstance which greatly influencing to macrobenthic fauna, were made clear.

N. Zamouri-Langar⁽¹⁾, L. Chouba and A. El Abed

Abstract

This work was conducted in order to evaluate the impact of pollution on benthic macrofauna in three ports, Tunis, Rades and La Goulette. These ports are located along the navigation chanel of Tunis. Many sources of pollution affect this area, depending on the activities of each port (pleasure, fishing, passenger or trade). The sampling of macrobenthic organisms was conducted seasonaly using the Van Veen truck set on motorized boat. Each truck content is seived and washed with sea water. All organisms sized over 1mm were sorted in the laboratory. For each station, a list of the fauna composition is established. In total, 83 species have been identified. The collected fauna is not abundant and not diversified which indicates the existence of strong ecological constraints. This phenomena is emphasised by the existence of some species such as capitella capitata. Nevertheless, the analysis of the faunistic composition, relative densities and the ecological significance of each species show a decreasing gradient in water quality deterioration, from Tunis port to La Goulette port. At the exit of the chanel, the zoological populations are also different from those usually found in normal conditions. Coastal environment of the chanel of Tunis becomes worrying. This water of bad quality which is propagated outside the channel could affect the nearest sea (gulf of Tunis) and consequently its biodiversity.

The sensory pore on the eyestalk of two Palaemonidae (Crustacea)

Atf Azzouna and Fathia Zghal

Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, Département de Biologie, 1060 Belvedère, Campus Universitaire, Tunis, Tunisie
Tel: +216 1 872 600 or 882 200  Fax: +216 1 885 480
E-mail: azzouna.atf@planet.tn

Abstract

Many podophthalmous Crustacea, particularly Decapoda, present a more or less salient external structure near and in the proximal position to the compound eyes. Ultrastructural studies have revealed a complex structure with at least, two chemoreceptors organs: the main sensory pore (MSP) and the lateral sensory pore (LSP). Studied by few authors, the complex MSP-LSP of Decapoda presents very different external aspects in different species, in spite of an approximately similar cytological structure. The deficiency of studies on the shrimps of the Palaemonidae family has incited us to carry out the present work that is interesting more particularly to external aspect of the sensory pores of Palaemonetes mesogenitor and Palaemonetes varians observed in scanning electron microscope. MSP is comparable to one observed in the Atydae, the Pandalidae, the Penaeidae and the Crangonidae. It is a sub-circular disk with a thin cuticle perforated by numerous micropores scattered by pairs. The pore of Palaemonetes varians shows the particularity to be more depressing distally what involves that its surface looks the compound eyes. It presents also, an arch that protects it partly in the proximal side and that is discovered only in Penaeidae. Otherwise, in this species the surface of the disk appears more pleated compared to one of the other Caridea. LSP consists of a more (in P. varians) or less (in P. mesogenitor) important invagination surrounded with a sureleved border that gives it a crater-like aspect. At the level of this pore, numerous micropores , of diameter more reduced and more irregular than ones of MSP micropores, have been observed. These micropores observed before only in the Crangonidae, are arranged irregularly and the disposition by pairs doesn’t observed.

Atf Azzouna⁽¹⁾, Mongia Fayache and Fathia Zghal

Abstract

The morphological comparison between two species under studied Palaemon elegans Rathke, 1837 and Palaemon serratus (Pennant, 1777), allowed us to establish five differences:

1. The ventral edge of the rostrum is armed with three teeth in P. elegans and four to five teeth in P. serratus;
2. The mandible has, a palp with two articles and an incisor process with three teeth in P. elegans; this palp has three articles and the incisor process has four teeth in P. serratus;
3. The endopod of maxillula has one external spine on his end, and one internal hook in P. elegans, five external spines and three internal hooks in P. serratus;
4. The first pair of maxilliped has in P. elegans, one entire endite, and in P. serratus one bilobed endite;
5. The antennular protopod bears:

• one clearly indentation on external edge in P. elegans, which is lacking in P. serratus.
• free part of shorter branch of dorsolateral flagellum several times longer than fused part in P. elegans and as long as fused part in P. serratus. In this species, the fused part shows also a suture

Oocytes inclusions of the marine planarian Sabussowia Dioica ultrastructure and cytochemical observations

Saïda Tekaya and Fathia Zghal

Abstract

Ultrastructural investigations on developing and mature female germ cells of the marine and gonochoristic triclad Sabussowia dioica have shown the occurrence of two inclusions types : 1) a fibrogranular material with medium electron-density, enveloped by a double-layered smooth membrane and 2) electron dense small cortical granules. The fibrogranular material most likely consists of ribonucleoproteins. Cortical granules have a heterogeneous structure, a glycoproteic composition and are produced through a double (auto-hetero-synthetic) mechanism. A phylogenetic significance of theese inclusions is proposed.

Mohamed Charni ⁽¹⁾, Abdelhalim Harrath, Saida Tekaya and Fathia Zghal

Abstract

Preliminary studies have been carried out on material from the stream of Joumine's dam (north of Tunisia), allowed us to place this freshwater flatworm among the subgenus Dugesia. Individuals taken from this stream presented no sign of sexual reproduction except for some cases of hyperplasic ovaries (less than 1 %). After five months of breeding in the laboratory conditions (temperature among 18 and 25°C and short photoperiod), 8.33 to 26 % of specimens became sexual with appearance of a hyperplasic ovary, a copulatory apparatus and a gonopore. So it seems that the darkness played a positive role in this sexualisation. More than 60% of individuals possess only the hyperplasic ovary. The mating between specimens sexualised did not give cocoons. During the laboratory breeding in natural daylight length and during the same period, no sign of change appear towards the sexualisation (less than 1% with hyperplasic ovary) in their natural environment. Histological study of the copulatory allowed us to determine the species of this fissiparous planarians, indicated for the first time in Tunisia. Indeed, it is about the specie Dugesia subtentaculata (Draparnaud, 1801).

Abdelhalim Harrath, Mohamed Charni, Saïda Tekaya and Fathia Zghal

Abstract

A freshwater Triclad belonging to the subgenus Schmidtea is collected from a locality in North-Est of Tunisia. For the present study, we are going to describe only the hermaphrodite reproductive appartus, because the systematic of freshwater planarian is based essentially on this structure.

Biometry in Metapenaeus Monocero (Fabricius,1798) of Gabes Gulf

Besma Chaouachi⁽¹⁾ and Oum Kalthoum Ben Hassine⁽²⁾

Abstract

Analysis of the biometric relationships of Metapenaeus monoceros in the gulf of Gabes allowed us to identify and to characterise this species population, and to compare it with that of others localities. We determined the allometric equations between different body measures for the males, the females and both sexes. We analysed the general and the seasonal relationships between length and body weight for separated and combined sexes. The results have been compared to the findings reported for others localities by different investigators working with this shrimp species.

Lamia Gargouri Ben Abdallah ⁽¹⁾ and Fadhila Maamouri ⁽²⁾

The exam of 13 951 Lamellibranchs belonging to 9 distinct species (Abra tenuis, Tapes decussatus, Irus irus, Loripes lucinalis, Mytilus galloprovincialis, Cerastoderma glaucum, Donax trunculus, Mactra corallinae, Gastrana fragilis) allows us to collect the larval stages belonging to three families of Trematodes. Sporocysts and cercariae of Bucephalidae of the Bucephalus genus in Abra tenuis (Prevalence=0.77%) and Tapes decussatus (Prevalence=0.03), sporocysts and cercariae of Fellodistomatidae, Cercaria plumosa, in T. decussatus (Prevalence=0.32 %) and Donax trunculus (Prevalence=0.12%) and metacercariae of Monorchiidae, Lasiotocus longicystis, in T. decussatus (Prevalence=0.77%). Sporocysts of Bucephalidae and Fellodistomatidae are essentially found at the level of the Mollusc gonads and digestive gland, but the metacercariae of Monorchiidae are found at the bottom of the inhalant siphon and sometimes on the foot surface of T. decussatus.

Microbiology and Biochemistry

Seasonal variations of immune and endocrine responses

H. Attia El Hili⁽¹⁾ , M. El Bour⁽¹⁾ and P. Deschaux⁽²⁾

In order to investigate the relationship between cortisol, non-pecific immune responses (lysozyme activity and total immunoglobulin levels) and stress factors, we allowed these parameters during 17- months in a salt water and euryhaline fish Mugil cephalus  living in a lagoom -Lake Ichkeul- which is characterized by large seasonal variations in temperature and salinity. The results showed a large fluctuation of cortisol, a significant difference between lysozyme activity for each sampling period (p<0,1%) and similarly for cortisol levels; but we did not find a significant difference between the immunoglobulin levels. Furthermore, we obtained a positive correlation between cortisol levels and lysozyme activity (p<5%) and between water temperature and cortisol levels (p<10%), whereas immunoglobulin levels seemed not to be influenced by salinity and temperature stresses.

Kaouthar Bouamama, M. El Bour and A. El Abed

In aim to study the bacterial populations associated with Mytilus galloprovincialis in a lagoon ecosystem (Lagoon of Bizerte), we isolated and identified biochemically 70 bacterial strains. The identification study was realized by using biochemical methods of rapid Api 20E, Api 20NE and ID 32 A systems. Anti-microbial agents sensitivity assays against 15 different antibiotics for whole the strains were effected to determine their resistance profiles. The results obtained shown 32 different species (26 aerobic species and anaerobic ones). Aeromonas hydrophila (aerobic species) and Proprionibacterieum acnes (anaerobic species) were the most bacterial groups isolated with respectively frequencies rates of 31% and 65%. The anti-microbial profiles obtained, demonstrated resistance rates from 3 to 12 antibiotics. According to antibiotypes found, we revealed characteristic resistance for beta-lactams, macrolids, aminosids and flumequines for anaerobic species and for beta lactams, macrolids and cyclins for aerobic species isolated. From the results presented, bacterial populations associated with mussels were heterogeneous. It’s evident that roles of these populations is so important for the mussels survival. Almost the species strains isolated presented high levels of anti microbial resistance. Further studies will be done to characterize molecular basis of this resistance.

Staphylococcus aureus resistance to hypochlorous acid stress

Nozha Abid⁽¹⁾, Sami Maalej⁽²⁾ and Amina Bakhrouf–Fadhila⁽³⁾

We have investigated the rates of killing of Staphylococus aureus by hypochlorous acid in an oligotrophic microcosm (50 mM phosphate buffer). Concentrations as high as 1.5 mg/liter caused a insignificant drop in cells viability, while higher levels had a pronounced lethal effect with two critical phases. Compared with exponential growing bacteria, entering stationary phase cells exhibit a high level resistance to hypochlorous acid. However, Staphylococcus aureus pre-treated by low HOCL concentrations develop tolerance towards a lethal dose of the disinfectant.

Zaafrane Sami⁽¹⁾, Maatouk Kaouthar⁽¹⁾, Ben Sadok Sonia⁽¹⁾ and Bakhrouf Amina⁽²⁾

The effect of sunlight on culturability of Salmonella Typhimurium katF⁺ and katF^- was study in microcosm of seawater on presence of antioxidative (scavengers of singlet oxygen, hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide and superoxide) osmoprotectrice and energetic compounds. Results showed that sunlight caused a rapid decrease of culturable bacteria in the standard culture and all the tested condition but with significantly different rate related to the tested culture conditions. Strain with katF gene is more resistant to sunlight than mutant strain. The scavengers of singlet oxygen, superoxide and hydroxyl radical were all effective in reducing phototoxicity of sunlight. Osmoprotective compounds have no protective effect. Energetic compounds added a net protective effect on culturability of both strains exposed to sunlight. From these observations it may therefore be inferred that both the organic matters present in urban waste water and the scavengers of active oxygen which are naturally present in seawater protect the enteric bacteria discharged in seawater from sunlight phototoxicity.

Antibiotics and heavy metals resistance of marine biomasses

J. Cheriaa⁽¹⁾, A. Dhiaf, K. N. Maatalah, N. Cheniti and A. Bakhrouf⁽¹⁾

In this work, we have acclimatized marine biomasses to the textile wastewater. We have chosen the most active strains and we have tried to characterize them. They are essentially Gram negative bacilli. We have identified marine strains by using biochemical galleries Api 20 E and Api 20 NE ( bio-Mérieux). The following genuses have been found: Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Brevundiomonas, Sphingomonas, Comamonas, Sphingobacterium, chryseobacterium, Aeromonas and agrobacterium. We have studied isolated strains resistance to the following heavy metals: mercury, cobalt, copper, zinc and cadmium. The tested bacteria proved to be tolerant for high metals concentrations. The following order of sensibility was found: Zn > Cu > Co > Cd > Hg. We have also determinated the resistance of some strains for several antibiotics (ampicillin, ticarcillin, kanamycin, tetracycline, and nalidixic acid). We have found that the studied bacteria are multi-resistant: 60 % of the strains are resistant to more than five antibiotics, Psesudomonas aeruginosa has resisted to ten antibiotics.

Salmonella adaptation to extreme seawater stress

A. Dhief ⁽¹⁾, N. Chenity ⁽¹⁾, M. Bahri ⁽¹⁾, J. Cheriaa and A. Bakhrouf ⁽²⁾

(1) Laboratoire de Recherche Microbiologique en Environnement et Santé
Hôpital de Circonscription, Salakta, Tunisia.
Tel: +216- 3- 665 191 Fax: +216- 3- 664 520
⁽²⁾ Laboratoire de Microbiologie Appliquée- Faculté de Pharmacie Rue Avicene
5000 Monastir, Tunisia. Tel: +216- 3- 461 000 Fax: +216- 3- 461 830
E-mail : aminafdhila@yahoo.fr

In this study we have tried to see, Salmonella fate after long period incubation in seawater (more than one year). Strains used are Salmonella Corvalis, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella Zanzibar and Salmonella paratyphi B. We have incubated these strains in sterilised seawater microcosms; incubation is done in dark at laboratory temperature. We have studied cultural modifications on nutrient agar; we arrived to revivify them by incubation in nutrient broth, SS and Endo. Biochemical modifications are studied by using Api 20 E galleries. We have found that stressed cells become unable to be cultivated on solid agar, they were revivified by incubation in nutrient broth during long periods, we find also that these strains become b galactosidase and acetoin positives. They are able to reverse to-wards their initial forms and give typical strains. These results can significantly modify the use of the technic for research on Salmonella in seawater and marine products.

Variability of the cyanobacteria Arthrospira platensis induced by salinity

Hatem Ben Ouada⁽¹⁾, Michel Brouers⁽²⁾, Naoufel Ayara⁽³⁾, Lamia Trabelsi⁽¹⁾ and Mohamed Béji⁽³⁾

Arthrospira platensis is a cyanobacteria growing specifically in high pH brackish alkaline waters. Laboratory cultures were performed using the classic Zarrouk culture medium with added concentrations ranging from: 1gr/l (reference standard culture), to15 gr/l, 30 gr/l and 50 gr/l, and in sea water medium pre-treated by precipitation of excess calcium and magnesium ions. The response of this species to the various conditions has been studied considering physiological aspects (growth and synthesis of pigments), morphometric characters (shape and dimensions of the trichome) and electrophoresis profiles of water-soluble proteins. Increase of NaCl concentrations induces a delay of growth but not of chlorophyll a synthesis. It is likely that the molecules of chlorophyll a in excess, are involved in the process of cyclic photophosphorylation thus allowing production of energy to compensate the strong osmotic pressure of the external medium. The synthesis of carotenoids, especially b carotene, is increased when salt concentration increases. This fact can be presumably explained by the protective function of carotenoids against photooxidation. Variations of the shape of the trichome were observed. The thickness of trichome walls increases and the spires tighten when NaCl concentration increases up to 30-40 gr/l of NaCl. In the contrary, at higher concentrations, a decrease of thickness and a flattening of the trichome are observed. High NaCl, concentrations induce degradation and less expression of high molecular weight polypeptides (superior to 30 KD). Cultures in the sea water medium, initially inoculated with a culture grown in Zarrouk medium containing 30g/l NaCl, showed different behaviors when compared with the other experimental cultures. Although the growth rate in seawater is slower than in the reference culture, it reaches a stable steady state corresponding with a prolonged stationary state. The b carotene synthesis is increased, in the course of this stationary phase when compared with the reference culture. The microalgal population appears more homogeneous and the spirals of trichomes are less ample and flatter. Electrophoresis profiles of proteins extracted from seawater cultures show at least two supplementary bands (75 Kd and 37 Kd) in comparison with profiles obtained from cultures in the reference medium. Further research efforts are still needed for interpretation of this new electrophoretic profile.

Lotfi Monser⁽¹⁾ and Nafaâ Adhoum⁽²⁾

A rapid and simple flow injection system with gas diffusion separation and spectrophotometric detection is described for the determination of acid dissociable cyanide in natural and wastewater samples. The proposed method is based on the diffusion of cyanide (as hydrogen cyanide) through a microporous PTFE membrane wall from a hydrochloric acid donor stream into a bromothymol blue acceptor stream. The transferred cyanide was then reacts with bromothymol blue and the changes in the reagent colour was monitored spectrophotometrically at 630 nm. The working conditions of the flow injection system (donor stream concentration, acceptor stream concentration and pH, sample loop volume, flow rates, etc.) were optimised. The calibration graph is linear from 1 to 25 mgml^-1 cyanide (R² = 0.998), the detection limit is 0.5 mgml^-1, the sampling rate is 30 samples h^-1 and the precision was 1.85% RSD. The method is simpler and quicker than other published flow injection methods.

Fisheries

Spawning period and sexual maturity of Sarpa salpa in Gabes Gulf

Amira Ghorbel Ouannes⁽¹⁾, Othman Jarboui⁽¹⁾, Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai⁽¹⁾, Mohamed Ghorbel⁽¹⁾,
Abderrahmen Bouain⁽²⁾ and Amor El Abed⁽¹⁾

The monthly evolution study of the gonadosomatic index (GSI), liversomatic index (LSI) and conditional factor (K), shows that the spawning period of Salema Sarpa salpa in Gabes gulf coasts, occurred yearly between October and December. The sexual maturity lengths (L₂₅, L₅₀ and L₇₅) corresponding to 25%, 50% et 75% sexual matured individuals were also estimated. They are respectively equal to 234, 241 and 249 mm.

Age and growth of Sarpa salpa of the Gabes Gulf (Tunisia)

Amira Ghorbel Ouannes⁽¹⁾, Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai⁽¹⁾, Othman Jarboui⁽¹⁾, Mohamed Ghorbel⁽¹⁾,
Abderrahmen Bouain⁽²⁾ and Amor El Abed⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Göksu Lagoon is a type of choked lagoon located on the Mediterranean Sea Coast of Turkey that consists of two lakes, Akgöl and Paradeniz. Lagoon is connected to the sea by a narrow channel that eliminates the tidal currents. The dominant driving force is the wind force. For a period of three months, some field measurements were conducted at the site. Water depths in the lagoon system were measured and ordnance benchmarks of the area were established at the site for mapping. The circulation pattern was observed by tracking drogues which were moved by the currents. The drogue locations were observed by the Global Positioning System. Measurements of salinity and temperature were taken throughout the water depth at different locations. Water levels were measured at three stations located at the inlets. Measurements have provided a significant preliminary data and well reflected the characteristics of the lagoon.

Sea Level Changes

Carbonate mineral formation and sea-level changes in Pagassitikos Gulf, Greece

A. Karageorgis⁽¹⁾, Ch. Anagnostou⁽²⁾ and P. Michalopoulos⁽³⁾

Abstract

The last sea level low stand resulted in the isolation of enclosed gulfs from the open sea, and generated specific physicochemical conditions that affected sedimentation processes as well as the formation of carbonate minerals. The Pagassitikos Gulf was secluded from the Aegean Sea for a long period, favouring the formation of dolomite. The gulf remained isolated between 17,000 and 11,800 yr BP, while sea level was rising from –120 to –80 m. some influx of sulphate-rich saline waters during this period and excess evaporation resulted in the precipitation of aragonite and gypsum. The gulf was flooded around 11,800 yr BP, the typical Holocene sedimentation commenced, and biogenous calcite was the most typical carbonate mineral. Depositional processes variations were clearly reflected in the sediments mineralogy and geochemistry.

Analysis of the water levels along the German North Sea coastline

Jürgen Jensen ⁽¹⁾, Frank Bender ⁽¹⁾ and Christoph Blasi ⁽²⁾

Abstract

Along the German North Sea coastline, an increase in frequency and duration of storm floods, especially at the northernmost part of the coastline, since about 1960 can be observed. At the same time, an extraordinary increase in Mean Tidal Range (MTR) occurred because of an increase of Mean High Water (MHW) and a smaller decrease of Mean Low Water (MLW). The water levels along the coastline are influenced by man-made or anthropogenic effects but also by quasi-natural influences such as the variations of the global Mean Sea Level (MSL) and the changes in tidal dynamics of the North Sea or in the Atlantic respectively. The North Sea is a semi-closed Inland-Sea with a seaward boundary to the Atlantic Ocean. The aim of this study concerning the gauging stations along the German North Sea coastline was to compose time series of MLW, MHW and MTR since the beginning of regular observation until 1999. By composing complete time series of water level data a basis for more advanced investigations has been provided. These may include the eustatic rise in sea levels (eg. secular trend) along the German North Sea coastline or the relative movement between land and water level, that is the relative sea level rise.

Ernesto Canal⁽¹⁾, Luigi Fozzati⁽²⁾, Alberto Lezziero⁽³⁾

Abstract

Archaeological investigations have been carried out for 40 years in the city of Venice and in Venice Lagoon: hundreds of ancient sites were found and researches are still going on. Archaeological remains are buried in lagoon deposits at different depth or, in some cases, they lie on the lagoon bottom or on islands surface. The sediments found in the sites of the lagoon were studied with Quaternary Geology methods in order to reconstruct ancient environmental conditions through the centuries. Archaeological indicators of sea level were measured in the sites safe from erosive phenomena and then submitted to necessary corrections because of their particular use in the past and the subsidence rate. The great availability of these indicators made possible the creation of an eustatic curve for Venetian area relative to the past 2000 years. The collected geoarchaeological data, archaeological evidences and historical data from ancient documents and maps demonstrate that conditions of Venice Lagoon changed through the centuries. Some islands disappeared because of erosion or submersion, the position of channels changed and new lands emerged as a consequence of the fall in sea level. Besides, starting from the XIV century, human intervention deeply modified the natural circulation in the basin and gave the basin more marine characteristics, as you can observe in present day lagoon.

Wave run-up on a rubble mound breakwater

Julien De Rouck⁽¹⁾, Björn Van de Walle⁽¹⁾, Peter Troch⁽¹⁾, Luc Van Damme⁽²⁾, Marc Willems⁽³⁾, Peter Kofoed Jens⁽⁴⁾,
Peter Frigaard⁽⁴⁾ and Josep R. Medina⁽⁵⁾

Abstract

Physical processes such as wave run-up and wave overtopping are very important with regard to the design of sloping coastal structures. However, these are not yet fully understood. Preliminary prototype measuring campaigns (1993-1996) indicated clearly higher wave run-up values than the values found by laboratory testing and reported in literature. The design of the crest height of a breakwater is mainly based on wave run-up values obtained by small scale model tests. Prototype measurements are seen as the big challenge to be addressed to verify small scale model test results. Therefore, a rubble mound breakwater protecting the outer harbour of Zeebrugge (Belgium) and armoured with 25 ton grooved cubes is fully instrumented to measure sea state, wave run-up and wave overtopping. Wave run-up is measured by two different measuring devices. Extensive laboratory testing is carried out on two t-o dimensional models (1:30) and on one thr-e dimensional scale model (1:40). For a better determination of wave run-up on the scale models, a novel step gauge is developed. Still, differences between results of prototype measurement and small scale model test results and between the various laboratory results are noticed.

M. Tirindelli⁽¹⁾, E. Drei⁽¹⁾, A. Lamberti⁽¹⁾ and P. Aminti⁽²⁾

Abstract

In this paper, laboratory experiments on a 2-D model of a submerged barrier are described. The model is intended to represent a real structure built in Lido di Dante (Ravenna, Italy) in the Adriatic Sea. Experiments were carried out in order to investigate the efficiency of such a structure and the changes induced to shore dynamics. A concrete model of the barrier (in approximate scale 1:16 to the real structure) was built on a bottom 1:10 slope beach in a wave flume. Regular wave tests were repeated and water levels in the channel were recorded by a set of wave gauges. Four different barrier configurations and one configuration without the barrier were tested (with different wave conditions). Main parameters analysed were wave shoaling and breaking, wave transmission, piling-up at the barrier and set-up profiles behind the barrier. The submergence of the barrier was used as the parameter to characterise the different configurations (ie.: different submergences aiming to represent different tidal conditions). The general behaviour of these parameters depends on the different configurations tested (ie.: different submergences), as well as on the different wave conditions (mainly different wave heights).

Temperature distribution of a hot water discharge in a wave environment

Vicinanza D.⁽¹⁾, Meola C.⁽²⁾, Carlomagno G.M.⁽²⁾and Di Natale M.⁽¹⁾

(1)DIC, Seconda Università degli studi di Napoli, 81031 Aversa (Caserta), Italy
Tel.: +39 81 5010245, fax +39 81 5037370
E-mail: diegovic@unina.it, michele.dinatale@unina2.it
⁽²⁾DETEC, Università di Napoli Federico II, 80125 Napoli, Italy
Tel.: +39 081 7682178, fax 39 081 2390364
E-mail: carmeola@unina.it, carmagno@unina.it

Abstract

The aim of the present paper is an experimental study on a hot jet discharged into an ambient for small values of the Richardson number. Two flow configurations are considered: the jet discharging into a stagnant ambient; the jet discharging in a wave environment. Measurements of surface water temperature are performed by means of an infrared scanning radiometer. Data, relative to the stagnant case, is reduced in dimensionless form in terms of the excess temperature decay and compared with those reported in literature; a general agreement is found. As far as the second flow configuration is concerned, firstly the behaviour of the jet-wave interaction is analysed and after an attempt is made to search for a correlation between the variation of the excess temperature and the main governing parameters.

Environmental and technical problems in a cooling water system of a coastal TPP

Carlo Avanzini⁽¹⁾, Coskun Yurteri⁽²⁾, Ayşegül Korur⁽²⁾, Yalçın Yüksel⁽³⁾ and Esin Çevik⁽³⁾

Abstract

The paper summarizes some of the multi-disciplinary aspects of the environmental impact assessment and of the design and installation of the intake and discharge facilities of the Sugözü Coal Fired Thermal Power Plant (TPP), located in the Gulf of Iskenderun (Southern Turkey) and presently under construction. Being the sealines installed in a closed gulf, the environmental aspects and the definition of the thermal exchange have been particularly challenging; moreover, the design of the position of the intake structures and of the diffusers, the choice of the materials – large diameter pipelines – and some key installation aspects related to the environment have required an attentive approach and a keen attention for the safeguard of the marine area.

Statistical presentation of spectral wave climate

Leonid Lopatoukhin^(1,2) and Alexander Boukhanovsky⁽²⁾

Abstract

Existence of 54 years of reanalysis of meteorological data and verified spectral wave models allows to calculate the ensemble of spatial-temporal wind and wave fields in a grid points. A set of values X=(h,t ,Q) is used for parameterization of complicated fields of wind wave and swell spectra S(w ,Q,x,y,t). Such a change of S(w ,Q) to a set of random values X simplify the treatment the results of calculations. Applying of both the theory of non-random function S(w ,q )=S(w ,Q,X ) of random arguments X and method of statistical linearization the approach for classification of climatic wave spectra is proposed. So, the variability of climatic wave spectra is considered in terms of joint distribution F(X). Different approaches for its parametric estimation are considered. The results of wave climate calculations for some seas, including Mediterranean, are presented.

The transfer of offshore wave information to the nearshore area

Luigi Cavaleri⁽¹⁾ and Mauro Sclavo

Abstract

A proper knowledge of the wave conditions is the basic information for any design of maritime structures. In this paper we focus our attention to the modelled transfer of offshore wave information towards a coastal location. We highlight and discuss the processes that determine the results at the coast, and the accuracy with which they can be modelled.

Numerical modelling of mild slope equations

Lale Balas and Asu İnan

Abstract

A numerical model that simulates the combined effects of refraction and diffraction has been developed. Model is applicable to complex bathymetries where the bottom contours are not straight and parallel. In the model, it is assumed that waves are linear, harmonic, and irrotational, and that the effects of currents and reflection on the wave propagation are negligible. Governing equations are solved by finite difference approximations based on a variable size mesh system. Mild slope equation is modified, assuming that there is no energy propagation along the wave crests, however, the wave phase function changes to handle any horizontal variation in the wave height. In this manner, the disadvantage of the parabolic approximation that one grid coordinate should follow the dominant wave direction, which causes problems in complex bathymetries, has been overcome. Applied methodology allows the check for breaking. Model results are compared with the results of two different wave tank experiments, and model is applied to coastal waters of Obaköy that is located at the Mediterranean Sea.

Suspended sand concentration fluctuations under unbroken waves

R. Kos'yan ⁽¹⁾, D. Hanes ⁽²⁾, S. Kuznetsov ⁽³⁾, O. Mouraenko ⁽²⁾, I. Podymov ⁽¹⁾ and N. Pykhov ⁽³⁾

Abstract

The mechanisms and time scales which control the temporal variability of the suspended sand concentration near the bottom under unbroken waves have been examined on the basis of the field experiments “Novomikhailovka-93” and “Sandy Duck - 97”. For the 2D ripple case, the suspension events occurred once or twice per period and coincided with the time of the flow reversals during the deceleration and the acceleration phases. Values of coherence between the suspended sand and the cross-shore velocity fluctuations has a magnitude of approximately -p /2 at the frequency of the wave spectrum peak and from -p /2 to 0 in the frequency band < 0.8 Hz. The vortex ejection due to the shear instability of the bottom boundary layer is the most probable mechanism for sand suspension from the bed in area which are located seaward of the wave breaking point under high energy conditions. In those areas the waves are greatly deformed and the bottom is nearly flat. The suspension events coincide in time with the first half part of decelerating phase or with the flow reversal after the passing of the wave crest. For such conditions the concentration follows the velocity fluctuations with phase lag of -p /4 at the frequency of wave spectrum peak.

Christoph Blasi ⁽¹⁾ and Jürgen Jensen ⁽²⁾

(1) Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56002 Koblenz, Germany,
Tel: +49-261-1306-5246 Fax: +49-261-1306-5280 E-mail: blasi@bafg.de
⁽²⁾ Research Centre Water and Environmental Engineering (fwu).   University Siegen, D-57068 Siegen, Germany,
Tel: +49-271-740-2172,  Fax: +49-271-740-2722,   E-mail: jensen@fb10.uni-siegen.de

Abstract

The estuary of the river Ems is located in the northwest of Germany and forms partly the borderline between the Netherlands and Germany. The mean annual discharge is 80 m³/s at the tidal control weir Herbrum. Despite the relatively low annual discharge the estuary is used in many objectives eg. like navigation, draining and fishery purposes. Shipbuilders use the tidal river Ems very extensively, which means dredging activities along the whole river are necessary. As the physical processes within an estuary are very complex the arising problems from the multipurpose use will be approached with the help of system analysis. The advantage of system analysis is the handling and dealing of complex and multifaceted issues. The ‘system analysis’ can be used for system identification and optimisation. The system identification has to be done with the available data like tidal water levels, discharges, salinity data and volume of dredged material. To get a first view into the physical processes water levels, discharge and salinity data are considered. It is fairly clear that the navigation purposes and dredging activities have the most influence on the system.

Erosion and breaching within earth structures due to water overtopping

M. Abderahmane Khalifa⁽¹⁾ and Rabah Bouzidi⁽²⁾

Abstract

Earth structures (sea-dikes, levees, dams,…) are worldwide used to protect human activities against flooding. The breaching of such structures often causes great disasters. One of the consequences of the sea level rise is to increase the risk of water overtopping on many of these structures. Earth structure breaching is due in equal proportion to overtopping (40%) and piping (40%), and to a lesser extent (20%) to slope instability. The mechanism studied here is limited to breaching caused by overtopping. This paper initially presents a model developed by Fread (1984) and based on the indications given by Singh (1996). In order to improve this model, we have developed a finite element model based on local erosion laws and local slope failure criteria. The model gives a non-uniform erosion surface. This model has been used to calculate breaching duration of the in situ experimental dams.

Sea Outfalls

Genesis and developments of the European “Life” project “Aquarius”

Carlo Avanzini⁽¹⁾, Nicola Bazzurro⁽²⁾, Paolo Domenichini(3),
Pasquale Ottonello⁽⁴⁾, Emanuele Roccatagliata⁽⁵⁾ and Enrico Da Molo⁽⁶⁾

Abstract

It is internationally recognized and widely accepted by technicians and wastewater treatment plant managers that a real practical knowledge of the behaviour of marine diffusers is at present lacking. Despite the abundant literature on the subject, a well planned monitoring and control of the efficiency and, eventually, of the environmental impact of the outfalls, certainly in Italy and, more generally, along all the Mediterranean coasts, is seldom realized, with the result that no control strategy is available for an early detection of the eventual malfunctioning and no intervention procedures – both on the outfall and, possibly, on the WWTP discharge system – are at present established. The “LIFE AQUARIUS” project, financed by the European Community and conducted by the a multidisciplinary team lead by the Genova Municipality and AMGA, intends to finalize a practical, cost efficient diffuser monitoring system, to be made available to the Coastal Communities. The project will demonstrate, through model tests and the realisation and test of a prototype installed on an existing outfall, the applicability and repeatability of a standard system for outfalls operational control, to be integrated in the WWTP SCADA.

Upgrading of Alanya sea outfall: case study

Orhan Tiryakioğlu⁽¹⁾, Cem Oğuz⁽²⁾and Habib Muhammetoğlu⁽³⁾

(1) Bank of Province(İller Bankası), Dumlupınar Bulvarı,07090Antalya,Turkey
Tel. +90-242-227 0512 Fax. +90-242-227 0517    E-mail: orhantiryaki@usa.net
⁽²⁾ Akdeniz University, School of Technology, Antalya, Turkey
Tel. +90-242-227 4780 Fax. +90-242-227 4785    E-mail: cemoguz@teknik.akdeniz.edu.tr
⁽³⁾ Akdeniz University, Department of Environmental Engineering, Antalya, Turkey
Tel. +90-242-323 6892 Fax. +90-242-323 2362    E-mail: muhammetoglu@usa.net

Abstract

The effect of tourism and increasing population on wastewater disposal systems imposes to upgrade existing ones particularly at sea sides. After revising the existing sewerage network, the wastewater treatment plant and the sea outfall have to be improved for Alanya City. In this study, the sanitation network, the wastewater treatment plant, the sea outfalls and water quality impacts are described and discussed for Alanya.

Patrícia Ramos^(1,2), Nuno Cruz⁽¹⁾, Aníbal Matos⁽¹⁾, Mário V. Neves⁽¹⁾ and Fernando L. Pereira⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Wastewater plumes show to be very difficult to observed in detail. The several field studies already conducted exhibit very complex and patchy structures both in vertical and horizontal sections. It is not clear yet if this plume patchiness is due to physical processes or measurement limitations. Rapid tow-yo sampling is expected to reduce the time variability during and between transects. The AUVs may be a useful instrument to detect and map wastewater plumes. This paper presents several prediction studies using time series files of actual in-situ measurements integrated in the UM3 near field model. The model predictions of the plume characteristics at the end of near field support the definition of the best sampling strategy for an AUV monitoring mission in a Portuguese west coast outfall.

Dilution of discharged effluent in Antalya sea outfall

Habib Muhammetoğlu⁽¹⁾, Ayşe Muhammetoğlu and Derya Dursun

Abstract

An Integrated water and wastewater project for Antalya city is about to be completed. The project involves collecting, treating and disposing the wastewater of the city. A rather long and deepsea outfall has been already constructed to dispose the wastewater to the sea environment. The minimum and average initial dilution and depth of submerged waste field below the water surface have been calculated for different conditions in winter and summer. Moreover, the dilution due to dispersion and dilution due to bacterial inactivation are determined. The results show wide dilution variation depending on different factors such as gradient of vertical density for seawater and T₉₀ value. The expected minimum total dilution will be high enough to maintain a number of coliform in the beach, which complies well with the Turkish Standards.

A probabilistic prediction of beach nourishment evolution

E. Benassai ⁽¹⁾, M. Calabrese ⁽²⁾ and G. Sorgenti degli Uberti ⁽³⁾

Abstract

A II level probabilistic analysis for predicting the lifetime of a beach nourishment project has been proposed. Considering that the new wider beach serves as shore protection by storms and to increase recreational benefits, it has been assumed that the beach reaches its failure state when its width becomes lower than a specified minimum. With reference to the one-dimensional equation of the beach planform evolution, the limit state function has been evaluated adopting an analytical formulation, which assumes curvilinear and parallel contours landward the beach nourishment project. In order to investigate the effects of the project’s geometry and of the fill material nature on the probability of failure, a sensitivity analysis has been performed.

J. van der Salm⁽¹⁾ and Ö. Ünal⁽²⁾

Abstract

ICZM as a way towards achieving conservation and sustainable multiple use of the coastal zone includes various types of management initiatives. Due to natural phenomena such as tides and winds and by the social and economic effects of humankind, coastal areas undergo some transformations. Coastal erosion and the disappearance of the beaches as a result of wrong planning decisions and lack of effective legislation beside all other reasons are maybe the most damaging effects and recovering them necessitates application of a series of engineering techniques. Beach nourishment projects as a way towards shore protection and utilisation through recreational purposes in the Spanish and Italian coasts are noteworthy in this respect. However in beach nourishment projects, the roles of various parties including public and private entities should be clearly indicated and in the evaluation and execution stage a series of questions should be answered for the successful completion of any nourishment project. Past experiences in the Mediterranean and the recent experiences in Anzio and Nettuno (Rome) clearly represent this fact. Considering the latter two cases, dredging of the entrance channel of the Anzio port made possible to re-start from mid-June with middle-sized ferryboats to enter the port (which was not possible before) which will in turn highly expected to increase the tourism potential in the town; nourishment of two beaches prevented further erosion and provided more area for recreational purposes. Expected economic contribution of beach nourishments to the regional authority was estimated for Nettuno and Anzio and as a result a theoretical pay-back period was found to be 3 years for the former and 15 years for the latter.

Utilisation of marine sand for beach nourishment in the western Mediterranean

Paolo Lupino⁽¹⁾ and Ciro Riccardi⁽¹⁾

Abstract

The Lazio Region (Italy) has started-up a project within the European Common market INTERREG III B in order to define technical, environmental and economical problems linked to the borrowing of marine sand for reconstruction and maintenance of littoral coasts under erosion.. The project, named BEACHMED, is focusing on the coasts of the Western Mediterranean. The main issues dealt with in this project are the estimation of required sand volumes, the search for sediments on the continental shelf, the environmental compatibility, the extraction technologies and the connected economical aspects. The European dimension for this project is needed in order to meet common evaluation standards. New objective criteria may be defined which then may be applied for legislation in this sector and this will offer to all operators a first reference to judge the real potential of such system when one has to reverse the effect of littoral erosion of coast. The project is open for all countries which surround the Western Mediterranean basin and it is proposed in order to obtain European Community financial aid for the necessary research and studies.

Development of a novel approach to beach profiling in the Maltese islands

Anton Micallef

Abstract

In calculating changes of beach sediment volumes, standard methodology involves the profiling of the beach face up to the ‘depth of closure’ where wave action no longer influences sediment movement and therefore requires underwater profiling. Such an approach is dependent on the availability of considerable resources in the form of personnel and equipment that may not be the case for developing countries and small islands. In an effort to develop a beach monitoring technique requiring the minimum of resources, the novel approach presented in this paper breaks with tradition. It applies the assumption that changes in the sediment volume of the exposed or sub-aerial beach reflects changes taking place below the water up to depth of closure, thereby permitting profiling work to be limited to the sub-aerial beach face. This approach to beach profiling has been applied to a number of pocket beaches in the Maltese Islands and the results obtained, indicating a general trend of beach instability are presented.

R. Certain ⁽¹⁾, J. P. Barusseau ⁽¹⁾, R. Capobianco ⁽²⁾, A. Meuret ⁽³⁾, V. Rey ⁽³⁾, C. Dulou ⁽⁴⁾, A. Stepanian ⁽⁵⁾, F. Levoy ⁽⁵⁾
and H. Howa ⁽⁶⁾

Abstract

During one month, in November 2000, experiments were carried out on the barred beach of Sète, on the Mediterranean, in order to study the wave action on offshore bar formation and migration, and beach changes including rhythmic shoreline structures evolutions. During this period, four storm events were registered, and bathymetric profiles, shoreline changes and beach topographies were recorded before and after each of them. Additional beach topographies were made for the beach cusps, which were found to evolve also in calmer conditions, and regular underwater measurements of pressure and velocity fields in the shoaling and the breaking zone were collected. At the beginning of the experiments, the inner bar was hardly observed since no major event had occurred since the summer period. However, it was observed to move and increase during the bigger events, while in the same time, the beach was eroded consequently. The beach cusps were found to be formed under small amplitude long waves, and destroyed either during the storms, or by obliquely incident short wind waves. The possible role of the infragravity waves in the beach cusp formation is discussed.

G. Anfuso⁽¹⁾, J.A. Martínez del Pozo, F.J. Gracia and F. López-Aguayo

Abstract

The paper presents a morphodynamic study of an apparently homogeneous rectilinear coast in SW Spain. The study area covers 14 Km of mesotidal sandy beaches, interrupted in same places by rocky-shore platforms. The method used consisted in a monthly monitoring of twelve beach profiles during two years. According to the results obtained from the study, which also include granulometric analyses and in-situ determination of the beach disturbance depth, three main beach classes have been differentiate: low-reflective beaches, dissipative beaches and rocky-shore platform beaches. Their longitudinal distribution is not linked to their distance to the main source of sediments in the area (Guadalquivir River mouth). Instead, a very irregular longshore variation of morphodynamic beach states appears. It is deduced that this longshore variation is mainly linked to local contouring conditions (e.g. the presence of rocky shoals which affect wave-breaking processes), and not to the regional longshore currents prevailing in the zone.

Wetlands and beaches of west Mediterranean coast of Morocco

Mustapha Aksissou

Abstract

According to the convention of Ramsar " relative convention to international wetlands particularly as habitat of water birds " and that has taken place in Iran in 1971, wetlands are defined as "of extended of marsh, peatlands, artificial or natural waters, permanent or temporary, where the water is stagnant or current, fresh, briny or salty, including extended them of water marinade whose depth to low tide does not exceed six meters". On the Mediterranean coast of Morocco between cities of Tetouan and Sebta, wetlands that appear to reply to this definition are: Martil river, Maleh river, Smir lake, Smir dam, Smir-Restinga marsh and Negro river. As wetlands in the world, these aquatic ecosystems are detectors of environmental and climatical changes and for this reason qualified of sensitive ecosystems. Their biological diversity is great (flora and fauna diversified notably the avifauna...). The social interest is evident (rest area, landscape, ecotourism...) and economic interest (natural resources, purification of the water, diminution of floods, coasts and shore stabilisation, retention of sediments). Wetlands and beaches of Tetouan coast (80 Km) are sites of fundamental and applied scientific researches. In the course of the last decade, a threat of these wetlands and beach has become increasingly clear by the demographic growth (urbanisation, exploitation...), by the industrial activity that does not take in consideration the environment, by the growing economic activity. An integrated coastal zone management aiming the conservation of these wetlands and beaches proves necessary for a sustainable development. The present article tries to train the current state of these wetlands and beaches while insisting on the impact of the man as well as proposals of conservation means of this natural patrimony.

Shoreline Management

Guidelines for coastal erosion management

Jentje van der Weide⁽¹⁾, Hans de Vroeg⁽¹⁾ and Fafa Sanyang⁽²⁾

Abstract

Many coastal areas in the world suffer from erosion. Sometimes this is caused by natural phenomena such as sea level rise or subsidence. Often engineering works along the coast interfere with natural transport patterns of sediment, thus creating erosion and accretion. And at a larger scale changes in the sediment yield of rivers, due to natural or human causes, can have great implications for coastal development. In order to design appropriate mitigating measures the causes of erosion should be properly analysed and the technical and economic feasibility of such mitigating measures should be evaluated. This paper gives an overview of the methods, techniques and tools that can be used to that end.

Coastal erosion susceptibility assessment at national scale: the Italian case

Edi Valpreda⁽¹⁾, Giuseppe Cremona⁽¹⁾ , Cecilia Schiavi⁽²⁾ and Umberto Simeoni⁽²⁾

Abstract

In order to improve the present national and local sustainable planning capability for the coastal zone a GIS application for the Italian Coastal Susceptibility Assessment was planned within an institutional Agreement between ENEA (the Italian National Agency for Energy, Innovation and Environment) and the Soil Defence Task of Italian Ministry of Environment. Taking into account the European previous actions a suitable methodology to assess in a quantitative way the coastal susceptibility and beaches propensity to be eroded. The applied methodology refers to a general conceptual integrate risk assessment model (Casale & Margottini, 1999) that implies the assessment of the intrinsic possibility that a risk event happens (i.e. the beach erosion), the quantitative evaluation of dangerousness that is the probability that the beach will be eroded and, finally, though the comparison between these results and the socio economical vulnerability the assessment of environmental risk based on expected human losses and damages in an estimated return period. The applied methodology refers substantially to homogeneous knowledge extant for the coastal zone for the whole country and this approach strongly limits the quantity and quality of usable data. Starting substantially from extant data a vector georeferred data set up is incoming at national level. Some national knowledge improving and updating were also in progress. Using the sea-land line trend as geo-indicator of a complex dynamic balance that refers both to marine and inland systems, the GIS application was conceptually planned and the application was started for the southern Italian coastal areas. The GIS application is based on the shoreline position traced from a georeferred 1:10.000 orthoimage of the National Cartographic Reference System provided by Italian Ministry of Environment inside the agreements defined within State, Regions and Independent Provinces Conference. Beyond the shoreline present position from that orthoimages a lot of new information were taken as polylines and polygons describing beach zone features having significance for the coastal erosion hazard assessment. The GIS application keeps the nominal scale of all data collected or produced. The first stepwork concern about data acquisition to describe the intrinsic beaches physiography. In this analysis the coastal dune presence is analysed as factor limiting the coastal erosion susceptibility. The following second step provides to join this data set to sea-land line trend (in the latest 30 years) coming from spatial comparison with former national cartography. Applying a matrix model a semiquantitative evaluation of erosion susceptibility degree was achieved arranging a real new information for the use suitability of Italian coastal areas. The work describes the methodology which the GIS application is based, the conceptual framework and the application progressiveness.

J. A. Martínez-del-Pozo⁽¹⁾, G. Anfuso⁽²⁾ and F. J. Gracia⁽³⁾

Abstract

This paper describes the recent evolution of a littoral zone through the analysis of aerial photographs. The study zone is located at the southern limit of the Valdelagrana littoral spit, in the outlet of the San Pedro tidal channel (Cadiz Bay, SW Spain). Valdelagrana spit can be divided in a northern urban part and a southern natural zone. In its northernmost part many man-made structures have been built in the last decades. Its southernmost part belongs to Cadiz Bay Natural Park. Here salt marshes and dune ridges are well developed. The development of a sandy ebb-tidal delta, in the outlet of the above mentioned tidal channel, was monitored by comparing a series of photogrammetric flights. Photointerpretative techniques allowed the identification of its main geomorphological units: inlets, sand bars, etc. Several flood channels of small dimensions and a large ebb channel were also observed. In addition the paper analyses the relationships between the delta formation and the construction of two jetties in the Guadalete river mouth during the seventies. The hydrodynamic circulation of the area was very affected, and important erosive processes took place in the southernmost part of the spit with a total retreat of 563 meters in the last 40 years. Well-developed salt marshes behind the dune ridge were greatly eroded and coastal sediments from the beach and dunes were starved and deposited in the foreshore to form the tidal delta. Since 1976 the jetties were lengthened several times. As a consequence, erosive processes grew in the area and the delta widened until 1991, when it reached its maximum development. Afterwards coastal erosion has decreased, probably an equilibrium between the beach plan form and the construction of the jetties has been reached.

Morphological evolution as indicator of coastal processes (Liguria, Italy)

Ivana Delbono ⁽¹⁾, Valerio Bozzo ⁽²⁾, Nicola Corradi ⁽³⁾, Ornella Ferretti ⁽⁴⁾ and Roberto Meloni ⁽⁵⁾

Abstract

The aim of the present work is to highlight the importance of morpho-sedimentological studies that have been conducted in periodical surveys in the Gulf of Lerici (NW Italy, Eastern Ligurian Sea) since 1991. Morphological and sedimentological results of beaches and seabed within 10m depth have given the best understanding of coastal processes so far. Therefore the morphological evolution of a sheltered coastal environment as a Gulf is thought to be a good indicator for a final goal of coastal management, which has to be achieved by the Italian Coastal Plan.

Pierluigi Aminti⁽¹⁾, Lorenzo Cappietti⁽¹⁾, Luigi E. Cipriani⁽²⁾ and Enzo Pranzini⁽³⁾

Abstract

The study of shoreline evolution over the last 50 years at the Tombolo di Feniglia (Italy) shows that the various coastal segments have changed from prograding to eroding or vice versa. The construction of Cala Galera harbour, on the western side of the Tombolo, in the early 70’s, and the wave-climate change during the last decades are considered the causes for this behaviour. Beach morphology and sedimentology analysis was used to investigate the present morphodynamics of this coast, whilst numerical modelling allowed us to retrieve cross-shore and long-shore transport rates for present and past wave climates. Results show that harbour construction was responsible for beach progradation in the western segment, whereas wave-climate change induced new trends in the central and eastern sectors.

Safa Fathallah and Moncef Gueddari

Abstract

The coast of Sousse, in eastern Tunisia, has undergone great changes, due to natural and anthropic factors. The waves generated by prevailing winds, i.e, north easterly, and the current associated and sea level variations (2mm/ year), are the main natural factors which control the quantitative and the qualitative evolution of the sedimentary budget along the coast of Sousse. Increasing human use, the construction of two ports and coastal urbanisation has accelerated the erosion process. The coastal defence structures (groins and breakwaters), built to protect the most eroded zones are efficient, but eroded zones appeared in the Southern part of the groins and from each side of the breakwaters. A sedimentological survey has permitted to make the corollary between hydrodynamic conditions and the distribution of sedimentary material. The analysis of recent evolution of the shoreline, by using beach profiles, historical maps and aerial photographs (1962; 1988; and 1996) shows three eroded zones located in the very urbanised areas. Elsewhere, the coast is stable or accreting.

Modelling of shoreline changes along the north western Egyptian coast

K. A. Rakha⁽¹⁾ and A. G. Abul-Azm⁽²⁾

Abstract

Offshore-detached breakwaters reduce the wave conditions behind the structures. The use of such structures results in modifications to the hydrodynamics and can cause severe morphological changes. This paper presents a case study where numerical modelling is used to estimate the shoreline changes resulting from the construction of four detached breakwaters along the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. The numerical model is calibrated and validated based on actual measurements for the shoreline changes. Finally, the numerical model is used to determine the beach nourishment requirements to protect the downdrift beaches.

Dan Bowman ⁽¹⁾ and Enzo Pranzini ⁽²⁾

Abstract

Undue coastal effects, such as erosion, usually occur downdrift to interrupting structures. The Gombo case is of special interest, as it demonstrates an erosional response by the coast, which originates "within" a set of detached breakwaters along the Tuscan coast. Air photo interpretation, satellite-image processing and analysis, shoreline mapping and bathymetric profiling were performed to follow and analyse beach response to a segmented detached breakwater. The breakwaters, originally built in the early sixties, initially induced little shoreline change, but after their modification in the eighties, sudden beach deposition began and four segments were connected to the coast by tombolos. A log-spiral planform bay, with a trend of progressive updrift migration of its inflection point, has been developing on the lee side of the disconnected detached breakwaters, probably because of the “groin effect” of the breakwater-tombolo system and offshore diversion of the longshore currents induced by wave reflection in front of the structures. This destructive process results in the gradual elimination of the entire sand storage of the tombolo and salients; i.e. it reverses the depositional trend by eroding the beaches to the lee of the detached breakwaters.

Protection, rehabilitation and stabilization of bordering dunes, Mahdia beach

Mohamed Ali Torki⁽¹⁾ and Mehdi Ben Elhadj⁽²⁾

Abstract

The Coastal bordering dunes constitute an important natural protection of the back beach by the dam that oppose against the swells and the tides of storms, also they constitute an inestimable reserve of sand for the preservation of the beach sedimentary balance. The bordering dunes are in addition besides a very vulnerable environment in the anthropic pressures, they can very fast disappear further to the infringements by constructions, by the estivants intense trampling, by the pasture devegetalisation, or dune destruction for installation of various equipment... Conscious of interest of Coast bordering dunes in so much essential dynamic element balance of the coast and in its evolution, the Coastal Protection and Planning Agency (APAL) have put in work a program of rehabilitation, fixing and protection of Coast bordering dunes, which was begun by an experimental project on the dunes of the beach El Asfouria at Mahdia, in partnership with Mahdia’s Medina Backup Association (ASMM) and the United Nations for the Development Program (UNDP). The site of intervention had been identified for pilot operation because of its embrittlement and of its strong degradation which intensify more and more; enormous breaches through the dune massif began to take place transforming the continuity of the dune in a chaotic and causing shape blocking with sand in the slightest blast of equipment and urban tissue situated behind beach. By opting use of new techniques, widely experimented particularly in France and having given obvious efficiency, that the experimental project of Mahdia was born. It consists of the reconstruction and the protection of dunes by the implementation of hedges breeze - wind, collectively called ganivelles, completed by a vegetalisation operation of dune. The installation of these works required a fascinating precise dimensioning of account all the characteristics of the environment considered, to optimise their efficiency and especially to avoid their destruction among others by swells and storms.

G. Berriolo⁽¹⁾, G. Fierro⁽²⁾ and S. Gamboni

Abstract

A part of the North-West coast of the Gulf of Tunis has been studied. This work aims to study the evolution of the coast in relationship to the principal developments that have occurred there over the past forty years (1961 – 2001), dams along water courses, river capture, coastal urbanisation. This study arose from a desire to identify the variations that had occurred since the study conducted by ITALCONSULT in the 1970s. It has been observed that because of the capture of the Oued Medjerda into the Henchir Tobias canal and the consequent shifting of its mouth to the south, a new situation has been created, with nourishment converging along the coast of Kalaat Landalous. This littoral is actually nourished from the north by the progressive erosion of the fleche of Kalaat Landalous and from the south by the inversion of the littoral drift due to the diverse curvature of the coastline along the northern flank of the new delta. Along the sector of Raoued-Gammarth, there will probably be a temporary gradual advance of the shoreline as long as the new delta of the Medjerda supplies sufficient nourishment.

Marine dredging and beach erosion in Gower, South Wales, UK.

Michael Robert Phillips⁽¹⁾ and Charlotte Elizabeth England⁽²⁾

Abstract

One of the most controversial issues affecting the South Wales coastal zone is that of offshore marine aggregate dredging. Links have been hypothesized between the dredging of Helwick Bank and the perceived dramatic loss of sand from many Gower beaches. There are economic consequences to both sides of the debate, either for the tourism industry or the construction industry. The results of investigations carried out on two South Gower beaches (Port Eynon and Horton) indicate a similarity between the sand on Port Eynon beach and Helwick Bank (92% passing the 600m m sieve). They also confirm a weak west to east longshore sediment transport equating to a mean gradient of 0× 03%. Evidence of erosion at Port Eynon includes the appearance of an ancient forest, which it is estimated, has been unexposed for 2000 years. Between experiments, the mean beach level in the study areas rose by 0× 013m at Port Eynon and 0× 026m at Horton which was supported by experimental results showing greater deposition at Horton (50× 9 kg/m² over the second tidal cycle). Despite this, there was a net loss at Port Eynon over the two surveys and prevailing weather conditions are considered as contributory to the differing results. It has been stated in the justification for increasing extraction rates from Helwick Bank that despite previous dredging operations, there has been no overall loss in volume. Therefore, although it could be argued that dredging does not affect the local wave climate, there are concerns regarding the source of the recharge material to the bank. However, climate change has caused similar effects on beaches in other parts of the world where dredging is not an issue.

Morphological variation of seabed induced by coastal development

C.I.Liu⁽¹⁾ and K.C.Hsu⁽²⁾

Abstract

Changhua Coastal Industrial Park (CHCIP), located along the west coast of Changhua County in central Taiwan, stretching more than 12 km from north to south and 3.5 km to 4.5 km from east to west, is the first application of tidal land be reclaimed into offshore islets for industrial utilization in Taiwan. It covers a total area of 3,643 hectares, and divided into three districts, namely the Hsienhsi District, the Lunwei District, and the Lukang District, the enclosure dike extends about 43 km and the demand of reclaiming sand is about 150 million m³. CHCIP is built on the sandy tidal land, it blocked the sand drift come from north to south, and dredged the filling sand in offshore area, which will effect the contour line variation in the sea. The hydraulic model test for studying the influence of CHCIP on coastal morphological variation was done during the period of planning and design. During the period of construction, annual geodetic survey of seabed was executed to supervise the topographical variation, and numerical simulation was also carried out yearly to forecast the topographical variation in order to propose suitable measures to avoid the negative impact on the coast. By comparing the topographic variation yearly, In general, the variation scale is slight and the influence of seabed by dredging in offshore borrow pit is not significant. This paper is aimed to present the methodologies used and their results for study of coastal morphological variation before, during and after developing of this park in order to reach a balance of economic development and environmental protection.

Ching-Her Hwang, Ming-Tzong Chen and Li-Hung Tsai

Abstract

This study comprises the analysis of the impact on the sediment transport patterns and the morphological evolution around the Tanshui Harbor, Present layout, Stage I and Stage II. The study has been launched primarily to asses the hydraulic performance of the harbor and address the erosion problems along the downdrift coast through a numerical study of waves, currents and sediment transport conditions. Further, the study presents a discussion of coastal protection schemes and analysis of two alternatives of the recommended scheme.

The Mediterranean and Black Sea as observed from space

Vittorio Barale

Abstract

Managing the fragile ecological balance of land-locked seas, and of the land/sea interface, needs intensive monitoring, based on integrated observation systems. Remote Sensing (RS) allows to explore environmental processes over a wide range of space and time scales. Passive optical and thermal RS is of high interest for the Mediterranean and Black Sea region. Sea surface colour and temperature images, converted to maps of environmental parameters, with fixed geographical grids and cartographic projections at suitable resolutions, give complementary views of various phenomena. Composing the maps, average conditions at various time intervals can be obtained. The compilation of historical time series of RS data on the Mediterranean and Black Sea area, has pointed out, for the first time, the space/time heterogeneity of surface parameters derived from optical and thermal indices, in the geographical provinces of the region.

Multisensor monitoring of the marine ecosystem at the Spanish Costa Dorada

Martin Gade⁽¹⁾, Vittorio Barale⁽²⁾ and Helen M. Snaith⁽³⁾

Abstract

Various spaceborne sensors have been used for monitoring the marine ecosystem in the north-western Mediterranean Sea, at the Costa Dorada, between the City of Barcelona and the estuary of the river Ebro. The aim of this study was to demonstrate that the combination of different remote sensing data (acquired at different electro-magnetic frequencies) allows for an improved monitoring system and, therefore, for a better monitoring of the marine ecosystem and a better coastal management. For this purpose, we present data from the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and the Along-Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR) aboard the Second European Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS-2) and the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) on the SeaStar satellite. The combination of various data of such different kind enabled us to overcome drawbacks of any single sensor, like an insufficient temporal coverage, or a strong dependence on weather and daylight conditions. Within the study area two main features have been selected as examples, which are well visible on many of the analyzed images. The first one can clearly be related to the plume of the river Llobregat, south-west of Barcelona, because of the higher load of chlorophyll-a and surface-active compounds, and a lower sea surface temperature (SST). It can clearly be seen from the imagery how the river plume is driven along the coast by the local currents. The second feature can be related to cooling water being released from a nuclear power plant and causing the signatures visible on the ERS-SAR imagery.

The atlas of the Italian beaches: a review of coastal processes

G. Fierro and R. Ivaldi

Dipartimento per lo Studio, del Territorio e delle sue Risorse
Universita' degli Studi di Genova, c.so Europa 26, 16132 Genova - Italy
Tel.: +39 0103538270, Fax: +39 010500794, E-mail: comett@dipteris.unige.it

Abstract

We analysed some particular sheets of the Atlante delle spiagge italiane (Atlas of the Italian Beaches), printed in 1999, which contain useful information on human activities, natural features, hydrologic and sedimentary dynamics for the workers on the coastal zone (researchers, engineers, experts of the public and local authorities, planners). Three examples, referring to a coastal plain with delta (the Po at Goro in the Adriatic Sea), an urbanised coastal plain (Viareggio in the Tyrrhenian Sea) and a coastal plain between cliffs (Albenga/Loano in the Ligurian Sea), are presented.

Gulf of Trieste: sensitivity areas using benthos and GIS techniques

Vivianne Solis-Weiss⁽¹⁾, Pietro Rossin⁽¹⁾, Floriana Aleffi⁽¹⁾, Nicola Bettoso⁽¹⁾, Giuliano Orel⁽²⁾ and Borut Vriser⁽³⁾

Abstract

The objective of the present work was to study the composition (distribution and abundance) of the macrobenthic communities of the Gulf of Trieste using data collected in the area from 1967 to 1999, as well as factors influencing it. With GIS techniques, we show the evolution of such communities with the main factors affecting it. The changes observed in the area, particularly replacements, eliminations or the increasing abundance, or even selection, of species regarded as instability indicators, in particular Corbula gibba reflect intense natural as well as anthropogenic induced stresses which affect the benthic communities in direct and indirect ways. Direct disturbances have in the past been mainly due to urban and industrial discharges (restricted to some harbour areas like Muggia, Koper and Piran) and nowadays are also due to mariculture and fishing. Indirect causes refer to induced changes in rivers’ runoff and coastal and off-shore sedimentary balance. The summer stratification of the waters which at times produces hypoxia and even anoxia at the bottom and the production of mucilage in the Gulf, a phenomenon which causes massive benthic deaths, as well as natural stress factors such as long term climate changes, and the special geographical and topographical conditions which characterize the Gulf of Trieste are also taken into account in this analysis. Taking all these parameters into account, a preliminary assessment of the sensitivity areas emerges, evidencing the zones under stress. These areas are classified hierarchically, according to the source of environmental stress and the intensity of the disturbance as seen by its effects on the benthos. This kind of analysis facilitate the task of the decision makers in taking the necessary steps to preserve the health of the Gulf in order to continue to develop in an ecologically sound way all the intensive activities it has been used to.

Y. I. Dreizis⁽¹⁾, G.N. Vershinina⁽²⁾ and I.G. Kantardgi⁽³⁾

Abstract

The methodology ICZM is represented mostly by the modern approach to the concept realisation of the marine resort regions sustainable development. The optimal means for spatially-distributed data on resort region submission and analysis, with the help of which the monitoring of a marine health resort state can be organised, and complex management of the coastal zones on an electronic cartographic basis are modern geoinformation systems and technologies. The regional GIS is presented, the principal components of the system, assignment, structure and problems which are solved through the basic modulus of the system on an example of the Black Sea health resort Sochi are determined.

The littoral information system

Habib Ben Moussa, Nabil Ben Khatra⁽¹⁾, Adel Abdouli⁽²⁾ and Abdelaziz Hmani⁽³⁾

Abstract

Tunisian coasts are privileged place for human establishment. In this space, industrial, tourist and agricultural activities are concentrated and becomes muddled. More than 70 % of economic activities are on the coast. Two thirds of the total population of the country are included on the coastal zone. The main Tunisian cities are coastal cities. It includes more than 73 % of the urban population of the country. This galloping, sometimes uncontrolled urbanisation, comes along by an increased consumption of the natural space. The littoral information system has data up to date with a rate of very high covering of the whole coast. These data are of use as source data to any project of development on the coast. To cover the maximum of needs, the littoral information system contributes to the enrichment of these data by an added value. These data are supplied in standard formats and supports. The littoral information system has for role the collect, the acquisition and the organisation of the data and information collected as well in studies of characterisation and of follow-up as at the level of the control of the coast. The tasks of the Littoral Information System can be listed as below:

• Data validation ( before integration)
• Data analysis ;
• Simulation and forecasting
• Synthesis
• Alarm system
• Maps edition
• Data dissemination