Coastal Management

ICZM, from planning to implementation: success or failure?

Frank van der Meulen⁽¹⁾, Robbert Misdorp⁽¹⁾ and Gerrit Baarse⁽²⁾

(1) Coastal Zone Management Centre (CZM-Centre), Ministry of Transport,
Public Works and Water Management, POBox 20907, 2500 EX The Hague, The Netherlands
Tel: +31-70-311 4370 Fax: +31-70-311 4380
E-mail: f.vdmeulen@rikz.rws.minvenw.nl
⁽²⁾ Baarse Beleidsondersteuning & Consult B.V. Den Hoorn, The Netherlands
Tel: +31-15-257 1103 E-mail: g.baarse@ba-bv.nl

Abstract

An approach is presented to assess restrictions and obstacles for successful application of ICZM programs a priori. ICZM is seen as a cyclic process (problem recognition, planning, implementation and monitoring). To depict an ICZM setting, the approach deals with (i) the ICZM problem(s) and coastal area to be considered, (ii) the relevant phases of the ICZM process and (iii) the institutional setting in terms of actor groups and specific actors. Given a specific ICZM country setting, the assessment is based on four implementation requirement categories: (i) mandate, (ii) capacity, (iii) commitment and (iv) financial potential. As an illustration of the approach, a quick case study has been performed, using Egypt as a Mediterranean country. The approach does not pretend to be new. Besides the real assessment of potentialities and the identification of needs, the present approach offers a clear and structured overview of the technical, institutional and political information which form the basis for ICZM.

Portuguese coastal zones and the new coastal management plans

F. Veloso – Gomes⁽¹⁾ and F. Taveira – Pinto⁽²⁾

Abstract

Seven of the Portuguese Seafront Land-use Management Plans - POOCs have been approved and two similar plans are at the final stage of preparation. They cover all the coastal length. Their implementation and assessment could be the first step towards an integrated management of the Portuguese coastal zones. River Basin Management Plans - PBHs have been concluded and approved recently for all the country. But these plans miss the consideration of estuarine systems and some other issues related with coastal systems. The National Water Plan - PNA is under public presentation and discussion. Several "key messages" are presented in this paper as a contribution for the assessment of the proposals of this plan in issues related with coastal waters.

ICZM in Egypt: Fuka-Matrouh CAMP project

Ibrahim Abdel-Gelil⁽¹⁾, A. G. Abul-Azm⁽²⁾ and Ivicia Trumbic⁽³⁾

Abstract

The coastlines in Egypt comprise more then 3000 Km along the Mediterranean and the Red-Sea. The coastal area of Egypt, however, is under severe and increasing pressure. After passing the law for the environment (Law 4) in 1994, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was given specifically, in a broader sense, the authority to implement this law. In this respect, the EEAA formulates the general policy and prepares the necessary plans for the protection and promotion of the environment. Also, it follows up the implementation of such plans in co-ordination with competent administrative authorities. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is one of the areas that are regulated and addressed in law 4/94. Framework programme for ICZM in Egypt had been issued in 1996. The present paper presents the results of a pilot project financed by the Mediterranean Action Programme Coastal Area Management (CAMP), namely "Fuka-Matrouh-Egypt" project, and implemented by the Priority Action Plan / Regional Activity Centre. It also presents the methodology followed in the study and the experience gained nationally that would lead to the sustainable development of the Northwest Egyptian Coast.

Public participation in major coastal zone planning decisions

David Johnson ⁽¹⁾ and Suzan Dagg ⁽²⁾

Abstract

The case is made in this paper for early and integrative public participation in planning decisions concerning proposals for major development in the coastal zone. This is perhaps easy to subscribe to in theory but much more difficult in practice. Currently the extent and timing of public involvement in such decisions varies widely. A key benefit is the legitimacy that public participation provides to the planning process and, perhaps as a result, a variety of public involvement methodologies have emerged. Important considerations include which sections of the public to involve and at what stage in the decision-making process to involve them. The multidisciplinary nature of coastal zone issues will tend to engage a wide variety of stakeholder groups who in turn will influence the topics for discussion. A major port expansion proposal in the UK is used to illustrate a range of ways in which the public can be involved. The case study also highlights that public participation is an uncertain science, and to be successful can require skilled personnel and significant resources. The paper concludes that more guidance for developers, some standardisation of public involvement, training for facilitators and a more responsible stance from some environmental pressure groups would be advantageous. The complexity of coastal decision-making, tensions between science and policy, and the inter-dependency of coastal activities mutually reinforce the view that inclusive participation is an important issue for all coastal communities.

James A. Griffiths⁽¹⁾ and Steve Morris

The current state of ICM in the UK is very much at a transitory stage, reflecting both the historical evolution of coastal management within Britain, and recent European and international policies that address the sustainable use of resources in coastal areas. The recently formed Pembrokeshire Coastal Forum in West Wales is a rural-based initiative (similar to other coastal fora already established in the UK), that aims to secure the participation of statutory, private, voluntary and independent community groups, in the development of an integrated strategy for the sustainable use of coastal resources. In addition to giving regulatory bodies the opportunity to present and receive feedback for management and planning proposals, the forum adopts a pro-active approach to community participation by providing a platform for community groups to address statutory authorities directly (regarding separate issues or concerns). In addition to examining the rationale behind stakeholder involvement within of coastal partnerships in the UK then, this study stresses the importance of identifying both real and perceived barriers to continued community participation within decision making processes, from the view-point of both regulatory bodies and community-based groups.

Helena Maria Granja

Abstract

Coastal zone management and conservation of many areas have rarely worked in tandem with so-called sustainable development, and even less so in ICZM, as is shown by the example of Portugal. Coastal zone management - or rather its absence - has irreversibly contributed to the gradual degradation of our natural heritage, including the landscape that is one of its key elements. Promoting conservation implies the understanding of what (geo)forms are, how and when they were generated, their longevity (dependent on the relation conservation/degradation), and the relationship with the ecosystems dependent on them. In a dynamical perspective of the coastal zone, management concepts inherent to conservation should be integrated. The evolution of the coastal zone depends on several natural and human-induced factors and processes, that have acted (and act) differently according to different areas. Some laws, such as the Domínio Público Marítimo (Marine Public Domain) and the Planos de Ordenamento da Orla Costeira (Coastal Border Management Plans) in Portugal, cannot completely achieve those purposes, as they are not adapted to a changing reality. To promote conservation and management of the coastal zone it is important to understand not only present-day factors and processes, but also those that have been active in the recent geologic past. To understand the processes it is necessary to find the palaeoenvironments recorded in the sediments that show those indicators that have been active (and will be active) through time. Through some examples of the coastal zone of Northwest Portugal, it will be shown how climatic, sedimentary, and neotectonic factors interacted in a very recent past, contributing to the evolution of the coastal zone.

Legal and International Issues

Legislation on coastal planning and management in Spain

Míriam Villares, Laia Oroval and Rosa Junyent

Abstract

The paper presented at MEDCOAST 2001 is a theoretical reflexion on the main principles that have led coastal planning and management in the international geo-political context, particularly in the European scenario. It provides an overview of the international conventions and recommendations for the proposals that have arisen over the last three decades in the field of coastal planning and management. On a parallel, a definition is presented of the coastal space limits (coast, coastline and area of coastline influence) submitted to the political and ruling context of the laws that affect the Spanish coastal territories. As the paper develops, it will describe a model for territorial occupation, extended fro the most part along the Mediterranean coast. This has generated in a most spectacular way, an agglomeration of all kinds of activity along the coastline. The result is not exempt of error as it developed under cover of the old Law of Coasts of 1969. Later, the current Law of 1988 has created a new framework for coastal planning where the central government, the autonomous governments and local authorities all share in the responsibilities. Lastly, the paper will describe some of the consequences of applying such legislation after a decade of its coming into force. One fundamental aspect is dealt with in depth that refers to restrictions and uses that affect the beaches.

To develop Russian legal policy on coastal area management

Elena E. Andreeva⁽¹⁾, Ioulia R. Davletbaeva⁽²⁾, Yuriy G. Mikhaylichenko⁽³⁾ and Alexandre N. Vylegjanin⁽⁴⁾

Abstract

As everywhere in the world, Russia pays much more attention now to coastal area management. The main objective of the management in the region in question is to harmonize interests of immediate consumption or use of coastal resources and the need to ensure their long term sustainability. The key issues that have arisen in this context in Russia, as in many other countries, where the collision of interests has already reached a critical stage, can be resolved through adequate management. It means, i.e. feasible overcoming of the following handicaps:

1. overlapping jurisdiction of central and regional powers;
2. competition between resource users;
3. ineffective conflict resolution mechanisms;
4. lack of nationally or locally adapted coastal policies decision-making process.

One of the main objectives of the presented paper is to shape the realistic concept for the future legislative developments of the integrated coastal area management. The coastal regions of the Black sea and the Sea of Azove can be considered as ones where political and legal difficulties as well as initiatives for updating management are concentrated.

Preserving water quality and improving wastewater in Japan

Nobuo Kumamoto

Abstract

Law and policy concerning water and wastewater play quite important role for preserving quality of water and sustaining recycling system of wastewater. The developing process of laws and policies relating to this matter may suggest us what we should do next for achieving our common goals of keeping quality of water in our society. Various legal tools may also tell us what kind of policies are the most effective and how we should operate them to the problems before us. In addition, decisions of courts rule on the delicate theoretical questions between /among concerned parties of water related matters. Thus judge made laws can be transferred to the countries acceptable of the results of comparative legal studies.

Transforming problems into opportunities in the oceans-the Aegean Sea

Şule Günes

Abstract

The Aegean Sea along with the Turkish Straits and the Black Sea, constitutes a short seaway that links Eastern Europe and Eurasia to the Mediterranean and outer oceans. This narrow and environmental fragile body of water, which is used by the littoral states and international community for variety of uses of the oceans is not immune from controversy of claims in between Greece and Turkey. Their common Ottoman past and the alliance in NATO did not prevent these two states to lock themselves into their positions concerning the Aegean issues for decades. In the second half of 1999 a new phase of détente is recorded in the Turkish-Greek relations which decreased the tensions and promoted cooperative efforts in the region. The purpose of this paper is to search for prospects of wider cooperation in the oceanic matters in between Turkey and Greece basing on the dialectics ‘transforming problems into opportunities’ inherent in oceans and oceans governance.

Port state control in Turkish law and its enforcement in Turkish ports

Huriye Kubilay

Abstract

Turkish Port State Control regime is based on international conventions and regional programmes to which Turkey is an active party. This paper reviews these international conventions and regional programs. The reasons of port state control enforcement have also been examined in this paper. Regional programs; Mediterranean Memorandum of Understanding and Black Sea Memorandum of Understanding, enforcement of port state control and port state control officers in Turkish Ports, conclusion and proposals are the main subjects of the paper.

Coastal Protection and Conservation

Estonian coast: structure of land cover and level of protection

Üllas Ehrlich⁽¹⁾, Peep Krusberg⁽²⁾ and Kalju Habicht⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Detailed analysis of land coverage of the Estonian coastal zone is presented based on Estonian laws on coastal zone management and CORINE Land Cover (CLC), protected areas and administrative division data of Estonia. By law coastal zone is defined as a 200 m wide buffer started from the mean sea water level line. Use of CLC makes results comparable with other European regions as compilation of CLC data has been completed in almost whole Europe. Analysis includes also protected areas showing the level of protection of the coastal zone and administrative division with revealing the distribution of land coverage inside the coastal zone by counties.

Strategy of plant protection in Black Sea coastal zone

Evgeny B. Gol'din ^(1,2,3)

Abstract

The Black Sea coastal land is an ancient agricultural region with extremely wide and various structure of crops and abundant biological diversity of pests and stimuli of plant diseases. The problems of plant protection were always important in this area and now they are more actual than in the past. Distribution of chemical pesticides leads to the accumulation of toxic compounds in coastal ecosystems. It has disastrous consequences for environment and human health and activities. We can see forming of steady varieties and races of the most dangerous pests, including quarantine species and carriers of plant diseases. They are more resistant to chemical pesticides than their natural enemies (predators, parasites and competitors). An effective solution of this problem is a partial or total (in some cases) replacement of traditional insecticides for the new biological means of pest control, in particular microbial preparations. It is necessary to extend their arsenal and to plan effective strategy of pest control management in coastal zones without any damage for environment. It is reasonable to realize the search of new preparations among natural substances, using the coastal natural sources, such as secondary metabolites of high plants, seaweeds, microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, cyanobacteria, microphytic algae, protozoans) or invertebrates. The author’s suggestions are turned to design of the special program including a number of interconnected projects. They contain a complex of scientific, research and design works, from research to introduction in coastal agriculture. Their realization will be a significant step to creation of the new highly effective and unrivalled preparations for integrated system of plant protection and pest control.

Ileana Espejel, Guillermo Aramburo, Claudia Leyva, Yrma Cruz, Luis Carlos Bravo and Juan Diego Flores

Abstract

The Mediterranean type of vegetation in the Baja California seaside has been severely modified due to demographic growth and agriculture, urban and tourism activities. Land use change in the last 26 years has been studied and used to propose an integrated coastal zone management plan. Different land use intensities have been defined in order to protect this important and endangered type of vegetation; as well, alternative economic activities have been proposed. The region has been divided in seven zones according to land use change rate and actual dominating land use. Botanical and socio-economic indicators have been identified and an environmental quality index has been developed. Maps from 1973-1985-1993 and 1999 have been produced. Land use capability methods have been applied through two regional ordinances (one for urban sites and one for agricultural sites) that have been proposed to the state and local governments. The local actors together with the research team have designed different specific management plans for protected lands, ecotourism or revegetation.

MedWetCoast: a pragmatic way to integrated coastal zone and wetland management

Fabrice Bernard

Abstract

The consecutive pressures resulting from the development of tourism and the concentration of populations on the Mediterranean coast have no equivalent and are on the rise. In this context, the MedWetCoast project, which was launched in 1999, endeavours to develop new approaches to the protection of wetlands and coastal areas through a pragmatic integrated management confronted with the reality of local situations. While preserving a “classical” conservation approach centred around the biodiversity of sites, MedWetCoast strives for integrating in their management a maximum of external factors to the site that have repercussions on these areas so much on the local level (population, urban planning or development projects, actions on the catchment area…) as on the national one (legislative and regulatory evolutions, town and country planning projects…). This article aims at taking stock of the practices already undertaken since the launching of the project and to measure their advantages and their limits.

Michelle Cassar

Abstract

This paper examines the case of two specially protected areas on the Maltese coast, the management of which is currently the subject of a 3-year EU-funded project under the LIFE-Third Countries program. Project partners are the Euro-Mediterranean Centre on Insular Coastal Dynamics (ICoD), the Gaia Foundation and the Ministry for the Environment of Malta. The sites under consideration are the Ghajn Tuffieha area on the Northwest coast of Malta, and the Ramla Bay area on the island of Gozo. Both these sites comprise a number of features of ecological and scientific importance at a national level, and are in a relatively pristine state. Both sites are however prime recreational areas, hosting thousands of visitors especially during the summer months. The challenge in managing these sites in a sustainable manner is therefore to protect their unique ecology while simultaneously controlling and managing the human activities taking place there. The following sequence of activities is being implemented at both sites: surveys of the resources present (biodiversity, habitats, geological and hydrological features, and archaeological heritage), implementation of first intervention measures necessary to prevent further degradation, and the drawing up and implementation of site-specific management plans, including rehabilitation and protection of biodiversity and habitats, regulations for site-use, and awareness raising and educational measures. The management structure of this project provides support for the concept of decentralisation of the management of protected areas. The involvement of non-governmental organisations in the direct management of these sites, under joint government/EU funding, is an important aspect of this project. This paper thus presents the project as a model for similar initiatives for the management of protected sites in the Mediterranean.

Monitoring and preservation of the littoral and marine ecosystems

Habib Ben Moussa⁽¹⁾, Fadhel Baccar⁽²⁾, Ridha Kehdhir and Saba Guellouz

Abstract

The development of human activity on the coast has been contributing to the degradation of environment with appearance worrisome phenomena such as:

• littoral ecosystem degradation,
• the urban pressure on agricultural lands and the natural zones,
• infringement on Maritime Public domain,
• beach erosion
• appearance pollution signs.

That’s why it’s necessary to implement an intervention system with technical, scientific, institutional tools capable to control the effects of this pressure. To identify the measures of conservation and lead the actions of protection and rehabilitation in the best conditions, it is necessary to have one tool of collection and analysis of information about the coast. Several gaps can be noticed:

• Often the actions are led within the framework of projects, they stop just later.
• The international financing are not carried on by national financing
• Sometimes it is a reaction to a phenomenon which stops after its disappearance
• Lack of coordination.
• There is no optimisation of investigation means and of takings
• This system should allow :
• To know either ground or marine fringe coast evolution
• Predict any event that it is natural or anthropological
• Intervene effectively and in time to remedy any nuisances or damages
• Facilitate the protection and rehabilitation operations

The system should insure:

• The intensification and the capitalisation of the current actions;
• Integration of the existing tools and the bodies concerned by the coast;
• The distribution of information through specific networks; Elaboration of bulletins and periodic reports on coast state.

Endangered Species

Propagation and conservation of endangered bulbous species in the Mediterranean region of Turkey

Abstract

Turkey is one of the richest country in variability and population sizes of fauna and flora because of its unique geographical site where is the meeting ground of three phytogeographical regions; Euro-Siberian, Irano-Turanian and Mediterranean. Geophytes (bulbous plants) have a good share in Turkish flora and many of them are endemic. A number of the Turkish geophytes are facing with extinction because of heavy digging and collecting. Flower bulb exporting firms are preferring to collect them from nature as in many other wild plant species. Three of the Turkish geophytes-cyclamen, snowdrops and stenbergias are under threat and they, therefore, were put on Appendix I (seriously under threat) of CITES. The purpose of this research is to find out the most easiest and suitable method(s) for propagating and cultivating them under sustainable principles and their conservation. Our research and the others showed that snowdrops are the most difficult ones to be propagated so far by known methods. Especially, Galanthus elwesii-Taurus snowdrop, has certain drawbacks including long lasting dormancy and vernalization. However, our research proved that this species could be cultured under certain environmental conditions and cultural methods even in sustainability principals. Cyclamen is an easy one to propagate in comparison to snowdrops. Nevertheless, these three endangered genus of Mediterranean region, particularly in Antalya province, still need further and detailed researches.

Imed Jribi⁽¹⁾, Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai⁽²⁾ and Abderrahmen Bouain⁽¹⁾

Abstract

The loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta is the most important species observed in Tunisia among the three sea turtles in the Mediterranean. The Kuriat islands (large and small Kuriat) are the most important nesting sites. The beaches of two islands have been monitored since 1997. In this note, we try to present the results of turtle nesting activity during the campaign 2000 and mainly the clutch sizes, the hatching and emergence success of 13 nests and the nesting females and hatchlings sizes.

Conservation of monk seals (Monachus monachus) and ecotourism

Tuncay Neyişçi

Abstract

The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus, Hermann 1779) is identified as one of the Europe’s most critically endangered mammal species whose population declined rapidly and drastically. During the last 30 years, a series of scientific conferences focusing on monk seals were held around mediterranean, (such as Rhodes 1978, Genoa 1985, Starsbourg 1986, Athens 1988, Texel 1990 and Arta 1998). Considering the importance of direct killing, entanglement in fishing gear, human disturbance and the deterioration and the loss of habitat as the major factors influencing the population decrease, all these conferences emphasized that the monk seals existing within the mediterranean, are under direct or indirect threat from the increased pressures of tourism. Monk seal numbers were shown to have declined in inverse proportion to tourism’s growth. Despite the existence of the protective cover of international agreements of Barcelona-1976, Bern-1979, Bonn-1979, etc. and the establishment of protected areas including monk seal pupping sites, the population of monk seals still suffers a rapid decline and declared as being on the verge of extinction. This paper is going to study the conservation issue of monk seals surveying around Bodrum Peninsula from an ecological perspective and try to develop an ecotourism concept suitable to local circumstances and values. Conservation strategy is to be based on sharing not isolation and should also allow to co-evolution of the related species or stakeholders. It is difficult to gauge the tolerance of the monk seal to disturbance, it has also been speculated that, if shielded from harassment, the species might conceivably regain the trusting nature. The fear of humans shown by the monk seals may be a behavior learnt from experience rather than an inherited trait. Men and monk seals, both have the potential to change their behaviors against each other if proper and rationale approaches are followed. Ecotourism may function as an adhesive agent by bringing stakeholders together and creating income to not only the investors but to the related locals as well. Based on a report prepared for the monk seals surviving around Bodrum Peninsula, the paper intends to suggest a strategy for the conservation of the endangered species and affected bodies.

The alterations of the Mediterranean coastal landscapes

M. Caterina Redini

Abstract

The Mediterranean necessitates coordinates for his environmental safeguard of actions and the landscape is a strategic resource for the future and the base on which support the politics of sustainable development of the Country (Italy). The landscape constitutes a knot of convergence of social practices and of public different politics, in this strategic picture that have been examined, all during these last two years (1999-2000), different choices, initiatives, objective that the national institutions, regional and Italians premise will develop in the next future. The coastal areas are those where it is necessary find specific original forms of development. The coastal areas represent a precious resource from the point of cultural view, landscape, tourist and economic for Italy and for the complete Mediterranean. They represent an element of fundamental attraction of our territory and a big opportunity of development economic legacy to plans of conservation and exploitation of the nature, that it you could have positive relapses on the complete national territory and on the Mediterranean.

Robert Morgan ⁽¹⁾, John Briggs ⁽²⁾ and Elizabeth A. Wild ⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Current (2001) UK Government policy is that up to 7% of total UK electricity generating needs may have to be met by wind energy by 2010, compared with <1% at present. Half of the increase may have to come from offshore wind turbine arrays. Scenically attractive coasts might be amongst the sites considered. This project sought to investigate at a pilot scale, the viability of measuring the effects of various offshore structures such as wind turbine arrays, on perceived quality of seascapes. Beach user surveys (total n = 130) were conducted at four beaches in Pembrokeshire, Wales, UK. Colour digital still photographs from a mixture of “scenic” and “non-scenic” beaches were used with some photographs of scenic beaches digitally manipulated to add items such as oil/gas rigs, wind turbines and cargo vessels in varying numbers and at various positions. Sets of 20 photographs were shown to beach users in conjunction with a questionnaire in which they were asked to evaluate scenic quality on a scale of zero to ten. Responses appeared to be consistent and reproducible, implying that future, more detailed studies in this area could be straightforward. Oil/gas rigs reduced scores to the greatest extent and marine cargo vessels appeared to have the least effect. Wind turbines had an intermediate but substantial effect on scores. The addition of multiple wind turbines reduced the scenic quality of the most “scenic” beaches to the level of typical “non-scenic beaches”. The study suggested that widespread installation of offshore wind turbine arrays could severely impact coastal scenic quality and affect coastal tourism revenues.

A. T. Williams⁽¹⁾, A. Ergin⁽²⁾, A. Micallef⁽³⁾ and A. Uras⁽⁴⁾

(1) Department of Applied Sciences, University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd,
Wales, UK. Tel / Fax: +44 1656 783928
E-mail : allan.williams@virgin.net
⁽²⁾ Civil Engineering Department, Middle East Technical University, Ankara,
Turkey Tel: +90 312 210 5441 E-mail: ergin@metu.edu.tr
⁽³⁾ ICOD, Foundation for International Studies, University of Malta, St Paul
Street, Valetta, Malta Tel: +356 240746 E-mail: micallef@icod.org.mt
⁽⁴⁾ WWF Mediterranean Program Office, Via Po, 25/C, Roma, 00198, Italy.
Tel: +39 068 449 7425 Fax: +39 068 413866
E-mail: auras@wwfmedpo.org

Abstract

The study of landscape aesthetics is subject to much discussion and numerous difficulties. As yet, no one technique for landscape evaluation has been universally accepted as many methods encompass only sections of the overall landscape situation. The present study looked at the Leopold methodology which is site specific to rivers in S E Wales. Forty six parameters associated with a semi-quantitative scenic analysis technique were recorded and compared for each of 141 sites located on the 8 largest river basins in south east Wales, UK. The sites selected on each river were 8km apart and the study extended from the river Rhymney in the east to the river Tawe in the west. Additionally, a river/valley characteristic assessment of one river, the Afan, was carried out. Results from the highly urbanised narrow corridor S E Wales river valleys, indicated that river character assessment rather than valley character assessment served a much more useful role in delineating areas. In the case of these river valleys, it was far easier to assess the negative side of uniqueness values as the most unique locations tended to be highly industrialised, urbanised and had high amounts of pollutants associated with the sites. The most unique sites were found at river mouths and were negatively unique, i.e. an eyesore. The second most unique sites were positively unique or picturesque and usually found at tributary heads. Attractive sites did not appear to score as highly as has been evident on other work on the borders of the region.

Regional development of the Bulgarian Black Sea coast

Institute for Environmental Strategies, Lagera, Bl. 38, Entr. 2, App. 29, 1612 Sofia, Bulgaria. Tel / Fax: 003592 953 11 94
E-mail: dax@cit.bg

Abstract

Black Sea Region is one of the few regions with a great potential for economic development in Bulgaria. The last several years of region’s development are characterised by a transition from central social planned economy to market economy. A number of reforms started in this period concerning local self-government, finance and bank sectors, agriculture, forest and industrial development, education and healthcare sectors. Some new processes were initiated included the privatization and the accession of Bulgaria to the EU.

The paper presents:

• the weaknesses and the strengths of the economic, social and ecological development of the Bulgarian Coastal Zone;
• the strategic goals and the legislative frame for the development during 2000 – 2006;
• the main goals of the National Plan for Regional Development (NPRD) as an instrument of the regional policy;
• the achievements of the Regional Development Plans’ goals
• the major institutions responsible for coordinating the sector policies in regional development of the Varna and Bourgass Regions;
• the support of the Structural Funds of the EU.

The paper also provides a brief conclusion of the main achievements and general recommendations for the future activities in the priority areas for development.

Gain economic and eco-friendly access via functional waterfront development

Daniel S. Natchez

Abstract

A broad brush is used to tie together the various themes related to the importance of preservation and enhancement of the environment and quality marina/waterfront development providing access to the coastline and waters. The paper demonstrates that environmental enhancement, quality development and improved access by the public can be compatible, integrated and undertaken in a meaningful way and on an economically affordable basis. Attention is devoted to infrastructure requirements, tourism, the need to develop partnerships and addressing both the direct and indirect economic impacts of marina/waterfront developments, as well as the need to integrate the upland access, development and uses with the shoreline interface, in-water facilities and uses of the water, all while preserving and improving the environment.

The sea and the city: an urban ecological study in a coastal city, Antalya

Huriye Oğuz and Tuncay Neyişçi

Abstract

Because of its natural and cultural features, Antalya is one of the most important tourism centers of Turkey. Located on the Mediterranean coast, the city is decorated by many antique sites, picturesque bays, sandy beaches, biological diversity, water courses, waterfalls and forests embracing the sea. Particularly after 1950’s Antalya has undergone a very rapid process of growth, exceeding the average rate of the whole country and her population reached at a level, 600 000, in 2000s. During the last decade, Antalya grew towards almost all directions excluding south where the Mediterranean is located. Antalya is one of the fastest growing cities of Turkey. Rapid urbanization has caused the conversion of farming lands into construction sites which brought about the disappearance of citrus orchards, greenhouses, and vegetable fields. City plans, given the priority to the unearned incomes rather than ecological parameters, have further worsened the consequences of this dramatic conversion. In Antalya there is no other boulevard besides Dumlupınar to be able to carry the cooling -warming and refreshing effects of the sea into the deeper parts of the city. In the absence of ecological thinking, some main streets which have been accidentally located to carry the influence of the sea into the deeper parts of the city, became blocked by apartment houses within a few hundred meters from the coast. The cooling sea breeze, for instance, could not penetrate into the city. A study of the city plan of Antalya shows clearly that the sizes and the locations of the green areas of Antalya which cover an area of about 8 million m², were not determined on the basis of urban ecology principles. Only 1/10^th of this area (718.232 m²) has been planned and realized as a city park. The remaining green areas consist of campus of the university, graveyard and the courtyards of the state offices. The green areas are generally located along the Dumlupınar Boulevard (7 million m²), in a north-south direction. Due to its suitable orientation parallel to the prevailing sea wind directions, Dumlupınar Boulevard forms a corridor which links these green areas to each other. The rest of the green areas are randomly scattered and isolated from each other as to form green islands. The per capita green area in Antalya is decreasing gradually whilst her population expands and complaints of the city dwellers increase. This study aims to produce data on urban ecological imputs such as temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity, which were, so far, not much studied in Turkey. In order to document the changes of temperature, relative humidity and wind velocities on an axis from coast into the city, and 1488 measurements in total were made at 144 different locations for a period of twelve months. On the main streets opening to the sea the temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity measurements were made twice a month at 07 00, 14 00 and 21 00 hours regularly. Some of the main streets were in north-south direction and some others in east-west direction. Additional measurements were made in the street cross-sections. A set of measurements were made in one of the largest coastal city parks-Karaalioglu- of Antalya. The obtained data were then statistically evaluated by using “Mann-Whitney U Test” for analysis of variance. For multiple comparisons “Kuruskal-Wallis” method was picked up. The data have shown that the temperature within the city is 2.89 ⁰C higher than that of out side, independent of the orientation of the street. The temperature of the city park differs 2-11% from outside temperature. The relative humidity was found to be 8.9 % lower than the out side temperature. Parks are about 10% more humid than neighboring streets. Structures of the city dramatically decrease the wind velocities. Wind velocity measured in outside (2.45 m/sec) dropped down to 0.96 m/sec, The difference is about 1.5 m/sec. The decrease of the wind speed in parks was found to be even higher. It was concluded that, the influence of the sea on coastal city - Antalya can not be carried deep into the city. Excluding a narrow zone (200-250 ms in width) facing the Mediterranean the rest of the city is cut off from all influences of the sea.

Nihal Şenlier

Abstract

The land use for tourism of coastal areas can be classified as in shore and on shore. The distinction among them can be observed with marinas, yachting harbours, mooring places etc. for the case of in shore; and day time accommodation facilities, hotels, motels, restaurants, etc., for the case of on shore. While assessing the fast development of tourism in the western and southern coasts of Turkey and the density of related land uses, the importance of the potential effect of the said land use, from the view point of sustainability, on the neighbouring settlement is easy to perceive. In this respect, the important point is to prevent the development of ungoverned settlement forms. Such settlements usually develop in an uncontrollable and rapid manner for the name of maximising the potential income that tourism might bring but jeopardise the sustainability of coastal areas. Land uses for tourism either develops integrated to an existed settlement or such developments motivate the development of new settlements attached to them. In both cases these land uses appear as being the basic factor which shapes the development of settlements around them. Development form in a sustainable manner of a settlement in a coastal region is a concept that covers economical, cultural, and social aspects as well as the physical dimensions. From this perspective, the importance of proper development forms for the settlements in the coastal area is obvious. In this study, examples on settlements in the southern and south-western coasts of Turkey shall be provided; the interactions between settlement forms and in-shore and on-shore land uses for tourism shall be explored and suggestions shall be developed for the sustainable utilisation of natural and cultural environment.

Sherine Khalil

In this paper, several options are proposed for community involvement in St. Katherine protected area, South Sinai through ecotourism activities ranging from Safari Guides and trail interpreters, to Bedouin managed ecotourism activities and Bedouin Owned Ecolodge Projects for the local Bedouin men as well a Bedouin woman handicrafts income generating for the local Bedouin woman. This research then attempts to explore a new vision for development of the local community while conserving the local cultural identity and the local environment at St. Katherine Natural Protectorate.

The coastal karst of Sardinia: a scientific and touristic resource

Sandro De Muro, Jo De Waele and Felice Di Gregorio

Abstract

The coastal karst areas of Sardinia represent extremely interesting territories both for scientific research as for what concerns their natural resources and landscapes. Especially the marine caves constitute a considerable resource for scientific multi-disciplinary research: e.g. the geomorphologic aspects, the evidence of Holocene Sea level and climate changes, the many different cave deposits with their paleontological and archaeological remains, the cave dwelling and marine ecosystems etc. Especially in Sardinia, that represents an ideal site because of its centrality in the Mediterranean and its geological stability during late Quaternary, the reconstruction of paleoclimate and Holocene Sea level changes based on the analysis of coastal cave sediments and concretions can provide very useful information. Furthermore, these areas generally represent under exploited but very important aquifers, showing many submarine resurgences sometimes with considerable flow rates. Thanks to the spectacular superficial karstic forms and the large number of caves, these areas also form an important attraction for tourists. The study of these scientific features of the coastal karst areas of the Island has been performed in different periods by several mostly Italian research groups, and in this work, besides the most recent discoveries and analysis, the Authors summarise the state of the art in Sardinia and the state of conservation of these karstic coastal landscapes. On a map of Sardinia are represented the different coastal karst areas (Capo Caccia-Punta Giglio, Balai, Capo Figari, Island of Tavolara, Gulf of Orosei, Capo Sant'Elia, Capo Teulada, Monte Sarri-Porto Pino, Maladroxia-Island of Sant'Antioco, Coast of Nebida-Buggerru, S'Archittu-Sinis) and the most important coastal karst forms, such as submarine springs, the caves, the rock arches etc. For each area has been compiled a short chart containing a general description and an up to date situation of the geological, cultural and environmental resources. Recently a study has been started in order to enhance our knowledge and to give our contribution for their integrated and sustainable development.

Geosites and touristic development of the karstic coastline of southwest Sardinia

Annalisa Arisci, Jo De Waele, Felice Di Gregorio, Ferrucci Ivan and Follesa Roberto

Abstract

In the coastal karstic region that spreads from Buggerru in the North to Nebida in the South (SW-Sardinia) can be found numerous interesting geotopes, biotopes and several places of social and cultural interest that deserve tutelage and valorisation. This mostly rocky coastline is characterised by the presence of a Cambrian sequence prevalently composed of limestones and dolostones and only locally of phyllites. These rocks have been involved in two main tectonic cycles and have been worked by different processes leading to the actual geomorphology, characterised by a karstic landscape, many suggestive folded structures and interesting sites of mining archaeology. A correct fruition of these environmental and cultural monuments is necessary both to preserve and to valorise them; therefore they have to be properly managed taking into account their carrying capacity in order to preserve their original natural conditions. In this work, the authors describe and classify these geological monuments and cultural remains and the botanical and faunistic interest of the different areas with the aim to propose an integrated model of sustainable development of this exceptional coastal landscape. This model is based on several thematic maps (geology, geomorphology, land-cover and -use, industrial archaeology, etc.) according to which have been proposed the institution of a natural reserve with specific geological and geomorphologic sites and the creation of several tourist circuits that are the basis for a further valorisation of this territory.

Funda Öztürk Kerestecioğlu

Abstract

“Tourism facilities destroy the natural beauty of our coast” This is idea of local people in Antalya where is the important spot for international tourism (Research-based sentence: Resident Attitudes Toward Tourism Impacts in Antalya; Korça, 1993). "Visitors effect negatively our daily life" This is another idea of local people at Uzungöl which is lake forest settlement and important spot for national tourism (Research-based sentence: What Local People Think about Tourism Development and How They Want To Change Their Social Life and Their Physical Environment). 18 Years of tourism experiences, Turkish people, especially local people figure out that tourism destroy something. This is important because the perception and attitudes of residents towards tourism and tourist are likely to be an important planning and policy consideration for the sustainable development, marketing and operation of existing and future programs and projects. After several decades of rapid growth, the tourism industry has reached a critical point in its development. We find ourselves in the midst of an environmental paradigm, where the old rules losing validity. On the other hand we have witnessed a growing interest in the relationship between tourism development and environmental quality. The search for ways to better integrate the needs of tourism with the protection of environmental resources has been given further recent impetus by the emergence of sustainable development as a management concept (Vellas and Béherel, 1995:xx). So we have to evaluate this impetus. This paper explains a method, which shows a way considering environmental impact of tourism development during the planning and design stage at the local level for preventing the environmental impact of tourism development.

Gianna Casazza⁽¹⁾, Cecilia Silvestri and Emanuela Spada

Abstract

A new legislation for the protection of inland surface waters, transitional waters, coastal waters and ground waters has been recently established in Italy. This law represents a new integrated approach, where all water bodies are considered as complex ecosystems to be studied in each of their components. The new concept of environmental quality of the water body, based on the ecological and chemical status, is introduced too. At the same time, the European Community approved, at the end of 2000, the European Water Framework Directive based on the same basic environmental concepts and criteria of the new Italian law. In this paper we analyze the Italian important points and innovations required by the new legislation for monitoring and classification of marine coastal waters. Details on definitions, parameters, analysis and monitoring programs are discussed. A comparison with the European Water Framework Directive is eventually shown; it underlines the specific characteristics of the Mediterranean sea, which have to be taken in consideration when applying the European Directive to this particular ecoregion.

Ayşe Muhammetoğlu ⁽¹⁾, Bülent Topkaya ⁽²⁾ and Habib Muhammetoğlu ⁽²⁾

Abstract

An integrated water and wastewater project has been started to protect the groundwater resources and the seawater quality in Antalya-Turkey. Initially, preliminary wastewater treatment units followed by a deep and long sea outfall system have been constructed. Now, second stage biological treatment units are under construction. A seawater quality-monitoring program has started three years ago around the sea outfall and it is still continuing. Some high values of the water quality parameters are determined occasionally due to intermittent pollution sources and illegal discharges of pollutants. The seawater quality complies with the Turkish standards for recreational activities.

Hakan Oğuz ⁽¹⁾, Bülent Topkaya ⁽²⁾, Ayşe Muhammetoğlu ⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Antalya province located on the Turkish Mediterranean coast has very clean seawater, which attracts many foreign and local tourists. Many streams carry different types of pollutants generated from the activities in their catchment areas to Antalya Bay and these pollutants are deposited in the coastal region. Boğaçay stream flowing directly into Konyaaltı Beach, a very important bathing beach for international tourists and local people, is the major land-based pollution source of the Bay. The major activities in Boğaçay catchment area are intensive sand-gravel quarry, agriculture and animal husbandry. Field and lab studies have been implemented on Boğaçay stream at five measurement and sampling stations for one year through March 2000 and February 2001 (Oğuz, 2001). The total flow and pollution loads for organic matter, total-N, nitrate-N, total-P, orthophosphate, solids and coliform numbers reaching to Antalya Bay have been determined. The resulting pollution loads show that high amounts of plant nutrients and solids are carried to the Bay. In order to protect the seawater quality of Konyaaltı Beach, all the sand and gravel quarry should be stopped, the irregular discharges of domestic wastewater need to be controlled. Due to the detection of high numbers of fecal coliform in the stream, which exceeds the standards for recreational activities, swimming in the stream and its mixing zone with the sea should be forbidden.

Massoud A.H. Saad⁽¹⁾, A.I. Beltagy⁽²⁾, M.R. Abdel Moati⁽¹⁾, M.A. Fahmy⁽²⁾ and W.M.A. Mahmoud⁽²⁾

Abstract

The western Harbor of Alexandria is one of the biggest and main harbors in the Mediterranean Sea, which is under stress from internal and external pollution sources. The different untreated pollutants affected dramatically the harbor compartments and biota. This study deals with the environmental characteristics of the harbor water to illustrate the influence of developmental projects of the country on this important coastal area. the surface and bottom water temperatures gave insignificant differences, due to shallowness of the harbor. the highest monthly temperature averages were registered in August and the lowest in February. Fluctuations of transparency resulted from drainage and wastewater discharges, phytoplankton density, suspended matter and water turbulence. Comparison of transparency values with earlier data confirms recent increase in turbidity. The higher surface pH values reflect increased photosynthesis in the surface and decomposition of organic load in the bottom water and sediments. The highest and lowest pH regional averages were matched with the maximum and minimum dissolved oxygen (do) averages. do was found at most locations and disappeared from few samples, in which hydrogen sulphide was detected due to acute organic pollution. Hydrogen sulfide was mainly observed in the warm season at stagnant heavily polluted locations. The lowest DO averages in summer reflect the increase in its consumption for decomposition of organic matter by elevation of water temperature. The significant positive correlation between surface DO and salinity confirms the increase in DO seaward far away from pollution sources. The higher surface chlorophyll-a values indicate surface accumulation of algal blooms and eutrophication problems. Statistical correlation between chlorophyll-a with transparency, temperature and pH illustrate that phytoplankton biomass was more affected by discharged wastes enriched with nutrients and organic matter.

Mohamed A.R. Abdel-Moati

Abstract

Alexandria coastal waters have been subjected for several decades to pollution stress from Land-Based Activities (LBA). The problem is identified as an industrial versus agricultural derived pollutants from one hand and sewage derived pollutants from the other. Which of these dominates? depends primarily on the disposal location and seasonal amplitudes. According to the type of stress, the coastal area is divided to 4 main zones of which zone A receives mixed industrial + agricultural discharge, B agricultural discharge, C sewage discharge and D receives mixed industrial / agricultural discharge. A location west of Alexandria was chosen as reference area for comparison. Six major outfalls as well as the receiving water were monitored for nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen), metals (Pb, Cd, Hg), Chlorophyll a and BOD₅. Long-term trends in concentrations of pollutants in the receiving water were evaluated using previously published data. Although industrial discharge exhibited high levels of contaminants, specially Pb, and till a short time Hg, its contribution to the total levels is small due to the increased agricultural load deriving mainly Cd and NO₃. BOD₅ levels reached >39.3 mg/l in semienclosed basins affected by sewage discharge. Untreated sewage has not only caused bacteriological contamination but elevated nutrients levels causing eutrophication problems where chlorophyll a reached >15 mg/m³ compared to <0.2 mg/m³ for the reference station. Metals levels are also significantly increasing during the last two decades. The residence time of pollutants, assimilation capacity and the expected reduction scenarios for treatment and cessation of the present discharge from LBA were evaluated to supply decision makers with necessary information. Accumulation of metals in marine organisms and sediments, destroying fishing grounds, immigration of endemic fauna & flora, appearance of new tolerant species and even the threatening of the submarine archeological sites are among the main consequences of LBA. The free connection with the open sea and the regular flushing of the coastal waters and its replacement with bottom neritic SE Mediterranean waters is considered a self purification for the system. Although the government efforts are devoted to complete cessation of all sewage outfalls dumping to the sea by 2002, industrialization pressure still needs to be regulated.

An approach for the best waste management program for marinas

Deniz Dölgen⁽¹⁾, M. Necdet Alpaslan⁽²⁾ and Ayşe G. Şerifoğlu⁽³⁾

Abstract

Marinas are such places that are located onto coastal waters, lakes, and rivers, and the various contaminants may be discharged due to the activities take place. Therefore the required abatement measures have to be taken in order to keep environment clean and healthy. Experiences from developed countries have shown that the most effective way to reduce the pollution in marinas is the implementation of waste management programs and to this end, Best Waste Management Programs (BWMPs) have been employed in USA and other developed countries. However, in developing countries lack of available financial sources and unawareness of clean marina concept may hinder the activities towards the application of BWMPs. The aim of this study is to address BWMPs in general and explain the waste sources and disposal methods for marinas and yachting activities. In this concept, Kuşadası Setur Marina in Turkey is investigated particularly as an example to the marinas in developing countries and the management measures taken in the marina is evaluated. The wastes generating from Kuşadası Setur Marina are introduced and the preventive measures against to pollution taken by marina are reviewed. Finally importance of the management programs towards the mitigation of pollution problems is emphasised.

Distribution of lithogenic heavy metals in surface sediments from İskenderun Bay, Turkey

Mert Avcı⁽¹⁾ and Musa Kazım Düzbastılar⁽²⁾

Institute of Marine Science and Technology, H. Aliyev Bulvarı No:10, İnciraltı, İzmir, Turkey.
Tel: +90-232-278 5565 Fax: + 90-232-278 5082
⁽¹⁾ E-Mail: avci@imst.deu.edu.tr
⁽²⁾ E-mail: musa@imst.deu.edu.tr

Abstract

Metal fractionation was studied in surface sediments from İskenderun bay, which contains an iron-steel complex, fertilizer industry, a busy harbour and sewage outfalls at the eastern corner to estimate typical sources and transport modes. Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Cr, Ni was examined of each 60 samples collected with Van Veen type grab sampler and concentrations have been determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. All the highest concentrations in lithochemical fractions were determined near shore of the bay. Lithogenic Cu and Zn enriched at western margin of the bay while Cr and Ni at eastern margin. Proportions of lithochemical fraction in total for Cu and Zn are low at eastern corner of the bay contained some industries; it suggests heavy metal pollution for this area. The distributions of the concentrations of Cr and Ni show several similarities. Most of the Cr and Ni in the sediments were associated with the lithochemical fraction. The enrichments in lithogenic fraction of both elements in eastern near shore sediments may be readily explained by the presence of ultrabasic peridotites and dunites including economic deposits in catchment areas of rivers, and these provide ready source of clastic material rich in Cr and Ni.

Şükriye Duman ⁽¹⁾, Muhammet Duman ⁽¹⁾ and Erol İzdar ⁽²⁾

Abstract

Eighty-five surface samples from the south-central Black Sea shelf consist predominantly of clayey silts and silty clays. The grain size data and the net sediment transport patterns suggest that the western part of this shelf is an area of east-directed active sediment transport. The eastern shelf is an area of major sediment deposition, except for localized nearshore zones. The sources of the shelf sediments are indicated by the total concentrations of 30 major, minor and trace elements in 59 surface samples. Multivariate factor analysis results show that 99.1% of the total variance can be explained by 5 factors. Factor 1 (Al, K, Nb, Si, Ti, Y, Zr) is an aluminosilicate factor that represents detrital clastic material. Factor 2 (As, Fe, Mn, P, Pb and minor loadings in Ba, Cu, V, and Zn) reflects the anthropogenic pollution by the Etibank copper mine and deposition in oxic and suboxic environment. Factor 3 (total organic carbon, Mg, S and minor loadings in Cl, Ga, K, Na and Rb) represents deposition under anoxic bottom waters and their associated elemental enrichments. Factor 4 and Factor 5 (sand, silt abundance, Ba, Ce and K, Rb, U) represents the biogenic activity and grain size effect. Multivariate factor analyses also show that uranium concentrations in the sediment appear to be controlled by sand fraction of the sediment.

An environmental study of the Monastir-Teboulba coastline (Eastern Tunisia)

Fouad Souissi⁽¹⁾, Radhia Sassi-Souissi⁽²⁾, Nouri Soussi⁽³⁾, Ayed Added⁽⁴⁾,
Aslem Jellouli⁽⁵⁾, Fadhel Baccar⁽⁶⁾, Saadi Abdeljaoued⁽⁴⁾

Abstract

The littoral of Monastir-Teboulba is a bay situated in eastern Tunisia, and characterised by a flat configuration where the depth does not exceed 3 m up to 2 km from the shoreline, in front of Khnis and Ksibet El Mediouni cities. Water circulation is restricted because of the presence of a series of shoals and a dense Posidonia herbarium, developed beyond the –2 m isobath. This configuration is responsible for the natural weakening of this environment, which is evidenced by the accumulation of large quantities of organic matter (OM). On the other hand, this littoral has been subjected, twenty years ago, to management works (accumulation of dredging products and digging of submarine channels) conducted for the installation of a fish farming station in the lagoon of Monastir; these works has contributed to the attenuation of water circulation. Moreover, the shore-flat of Monastir-Teboulba makes the receptacle of solid discharges carried by the drain of Khnis, drift currents and fluvial waters channeled by the hydrographic system (drain of Khnis and Oued Essouk), as well as the waste waters of the fish farming station. This environment has evolved towards eutrophication, and has attained now an advanced stage of degradation. The environmental study of this littoral is based on the geochemical analysis of OM and trace metals (Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn) in the fine fraction (< 63 µm) of the surface and core sediments as well as the analysis of surface marine waters. The results show that in the surface sediments the total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations are within the range 2-6 %; while the analysis of OM (C/N, hydrogen index «IH», and gas chromatography «GC») gives evidence of its composite origin (marine and continental), with the predominance of the marine fraction. The highest concentrations of Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb (up to 37, 30, 139 and 75 ppm, respectively) in the marine superficial sediments are also associated with the fine sediments and are confined to the area lying opposite Khnis and the drain outlet. The analysis of chemical fractionation of metals, has show that in the marine sediments Ni, Cu and Pb and at a lesser extent Zn, are attached to the OM and the residual fraction; whereas in the drain sediments all the metals are mainly associated with the residual fraction. The analysis of the core sediments has shown that the oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) run from –100 mV to –400 mV; while high TOC concentrations are maintained through several decimeters below surface (more than 65 cm). Consequently, one can suppose that this littoral has behaved, for a long period, as a trap for OM. The analyses have also shown that the Cu, Zn and Pb concentrations are relatively high (up to 30, 132 and 66 ppm, respectively) in the upper section of the sedimentary column (15-25 cm) and allowed the estimation of the local natural concentrations (LNC) for Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb. As a conclusion, by this study we demonstrate that the environmental degradation of this littoral is due to the attenuation of water circulations because of the intervening of natural factors as well as human action, along with the contribution of nutrients and OM coming either from the continent or from the decomposition of the composite (marine and continental) OM associated with the fine sediments in the shore-flat.

Heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Hg) in marine organisms from north Tunisian Coast

Lassaad Chouba ⁽¹⁾, Habib Amara and Amor El Abed

Abstract

In order to protect, control and evaluate the degree of chemical contamination of the Tunisian sea, an assessment of trace metals (cadmium Cd, lead, Pb and mercury, Hg) in common species (fish and shellfish) collected from lakes and Gulf of north Tunisia was conducted. Samples were collected from sites exposed to pollution, due to directly or indirectly rejected sewage from industrial unities. The experiment was realised during three years. An average concentration of heavy metals were determined yearly in the species muscles by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) using the methods described and recommended by IAEA / UNEP (1984). The yearly mean concentrations of Cd, Pb and Hg recorded in each species showed a not significant variability from year to year. This could be explained by the behaviour of each species and its biotope. The highest concentration of Hg and Cd were recorded in shellfish muscles. The Pb contents are variable in time but it remains lower than the limiting thresholds tolerated by WHO. This non alarming bio-accumulation requires, nevertheless a detailed attention for elimination and controlling sources of chemical pollution affecting the marine ecosystems and lakes.

Mercury in marine sediments and mussel tissues of Bizerte Lagoon, Tunisia

Nadia Mzoughi ⁽¹⁾, Teodor L. Stoichev ⁽²⁾, Amor El Abed ⁽¹⁾, Mohamed Dachraoui1 ⁽³⁾,
David Amouroux ⁽²⁾ and Olivier F. X. Donard ⁽²⁾

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the speciation of mercury compounds in marine sediments and mussel tissues collected in Bizerte lagoon, Tunisia during two seasons (summer and winter). To determine methylmercury and inorganic mercury concentrations in sediment samples, a microwave-assisted acid leaching technique with nitric acid solution (HNO3, 6N) is used for the selective extraction of mercury species. For biological tissues, the digestion procedure is using microwave-assisted dissolution in alkaline conditions with tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH, 25%). The determination is subsequently performed with an automated on-line analytical set-up involving derivatisation (i.e. ethylation or hydride generation) – cryogenic trapping – gas chromatography – atomic fluorescence spectrometry (D/CT/GC/AFS). Inorganic mercury concentrations in sediments are found to be highly variable, ranging from geochemical background levels at 24 ng/g to coastal sediments levels at 804 ng/g (dry weight). However, inorganic mercury concentrations average is 146 ng/g. No significant variations is observed between winter and summer seasons. Trace amounts of methylmercury are also observed in these sediments and are subject to further investigations for better quantification of this compound. In mussel tissues, preliminary results show that total mercury concentrations are also variable ranging from 19 to 289 ng/g (dry weight). The average concentration obtained so far is 160 ng/g. In these tissues, inorganic mercury is generally the major compounds contributing to c.a. 88% of total mercury concentrations. However, methylmercury concentrations are significant and homogeneous, ranging from 12 to 24 ng/g and averaging 19 ng/g. These methylmercury levels suggest that a fraction of the inorganic mercury load in the sediments of the lagoon undergoes methylation pathways.

Masmoudi W.⁽¹⁾, Romdhane M.S.⁽²⁾, Khériji S.⁽¹⁾ and El Cafsi M.⁽¹⁾

Abstract

Some millions larvae of mugilidae are collected yearly from coastal areas (river and channels) to grow out in continental lakes in Tunisia. This works is suggesting the monitoring of the bioaccumulation of an organochlorine pesticide (g HCH or lindane) in the flesh of three mugilidae species: Mugil cephalus, Liza aurata and Liza ramada. Results pointed out that the mean concentration of lindane in Mugil cephalus larvae (124 ng/g fat weight) was significantly higher than in the two other species (64 and 67 ng/g fat weight respectively for Liza aurata and Liza ramada). Mugil cephalus larvae were the less fatty species. It seems that the bioaccumulation of this pesticide depends on many factors as the water temperature, the dietary intake and the metabolic capability of these species towards the lindane.

Detection of enteric viruses in the Tunisian lagoons' shellfish

Essebai Elamri Dorsaf and Amor El Abed

Abstract

Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) has been used extensively to detect enteric viruses in environmental samples such as shellfish. Advantages of RT-PCR include its high detection sensitivity and rapid turn-around time. The aim of this study was to develop a rapid and simple processing procedure that can be used to extract and recover enteric viruses (hepatitis A virus (HAV), Norwalk-like virus (NLV), enteroviruses (EV), and astroviruses (AV)) from shellfish tissue collected in order to obtain a sensitive PCR detection. The results of viral contamination levels in the tunisian lagoons’ shellfish will be a very important mean to prevent sanitary risks.

Bacterial study of mesophyllic aeromonads distribution in shellfish

Monia El Bour., H. Attia El Hili, R. Mraouna and W. Ayari

INSTM, Rue du 2 mars 1934, 2025 – Tunisia. E mail: monia.elbour@instm.rnrt.tn

Abstract

Bacterial members of mesophyllic aeromonads species are ubiquitous known in various aquatic environments. Some of them can be isolated either from oligotrophic seawater, i.e the open sea, or from coastal environments which are enriched with nutrients coming from rivers and sewage. High density of Aeromonas sp in the aquatic environments can be used as biological indicators to determine the degree of water degradation. Also, they are implicated in several pathological diseases of aquatic organisms. In aim to characterise the most frequent genus of bacteria associated with shellfish samples, we studied one hundred eighty nine strains of Aeromonas isolated by monthly sampling from mussels and clams in three conchylicultural areas in Tunisian lagoons between may 1999 and September 2000. Biotyping methods utilised allowed us to identify 181 strains (96%) as Aeromonas hydrophila, 7 strains (3%) as Aeromonas salmonicida and one strain as Aeromonas sobria. Aeromonas hydrophila was the most prevalent species isolated in clams and mussels. According to the results obtained, we revealed several biotypes in this species. The antimicrobial typing was realized following standardized methods against fifteen different antibiotics. The antimicrobial screening showed that, all the strains identified were resistant to more than 2 different antibiotics. Resistance profiles to 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 antibiotics were common to a rate of 20% by each profile for the species Aeromonas hydrophila studied. Among the antibiotics tested, beta lactams, aminosids, macrolids, cyclins, flumequins and rifamycins had low effectiveness within Aeromonas species identified. It’s evident that multi resistance to antibiotics was so common to all the biotypes identified. Further assays are being to be done in purpose to investigate the genetical support of such microbial resistance.

VOLUME II

Coastal and Marine Biology

The Benthic vegetation in the Farwà Lagoon (Libya)

Gérard Pergent⁽¹⁾, Aslam Djellouli⁽²⁾, Abdulmaula A. Hamza⁽³⁾, Khalled S. Ettayeb⁽³⁾, Abdullah A. El Mansouri⁽⁴⁾, Fathi M. Talha⁽⁴⁾,
Mohamed A. Hamza⁽⁴⁾, Christine Pergent-Martini⁽¹⁾ and Frédéric Platini⁽⁵⁾

Abstract

Mediterranean ecosystems are of major ecological importance as compared to other biogeographical zones of the biosphere. Today, however, it would appear that a number of species are threatened whereas others proliferate (e.g. invasive species). In addition to the ecological problem that such changes represent in terms of biodiversity, there are also economic repercussions that cannot be overlooked (spawning and nursery grounds...). This study is part of the Action Plan for the conservation of marine plants in the Mediterranean, a project adopted during the 11^th meeting of the Barcelona Convention's contracting parties, held in Malta in October 1999. In light of both the extent of the Libyan coastline (over 2 000 km) and the presence of extensive seagrass beds in this region, it was decided that a preliminary study was necessary in this country, notably in the lagoon of Farwà. Three main objectives were set: (i) To collect information on the main vegetation formations, (ii) To identify the main human activities, (iii) To map the main habitats within Farwà lagoon. The scientific study was carried out from June 5^th to 15^th, 2000 in the Farwà lagoon. The mapping of the main benthic vegetation (phytobenthos) was achieved by compiling the field observations (transect method), and remote sensing of SPOT satellite images. The plant formations in Farwà lagoon cover an area of 1 820 hectares (65%). Three macrophyte species predominate, namely the marine phanerogams Cymodocea nodosa and Posidonia oceanica, and the alga Caulerpa prolifera. These different species are present either as monospecific assemblages or as mixed populations. Their distribution within the lagoon can be described as follows:

• From the surface to a depth of 1 m, monospecific Cymodocea nodosa seagrass beds,
• From 1 to 2 m in depth, mixed formations of Cymodocea nodosa and Caulerpa prolifera,
• Deeper than 2 m (navigation channel), dense, monospecific Caulerpa prolifera meadows and patches of Posidonia oceanica (2 to 4 m²); this seagrass is also present from the end of the channel to the more central part of the lagoon.

The presence of dead Posidonia oceanica leaves (litter) should also be noted, as these form veritable mounds in the vicinity of the openings leading to open sea. These accumulations, which cover relatively small surface areas (0.6 %), are a very characteristic feature of