Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Mediterranean Coastal Environment, MEDCOAST 97, November 11-14, 1997; Qawra, Malta, E.Özhan (Editor)

Abstract

During the period 1991 to 1997, extensive baseline studies of the submarine geomorphology, infralittoral habitats, macrobenthic assemblages, and demersal fish fauna, were carried out in 14 different sites around the Maltese Islands, using conventional SCUBA diving techniques. These were made as part of assessments of the environmental impact of existing or proposed projects, or in order to produce an inven-tory of coastal resources. In total, these surveys covered a sea-bed area of ca. 7.55km2 and a coastline length of ca. 24 km, and represent the most extensive biological surveys of the marine environment carried out to date in the Maltese Islands. The results of these surveys have been presented as maps showing the type, location, and spatial extent of these physical and biological features. The Pérès & Picard (1964) scheme, as adapted by Pérès (1967; 1982) was used to classify and characterize the benthic assemblages recorded during the surveys.

Our results show that, in terms of spatial extent, the most important macrobenthic assemblages are the communities of photophilic algae on hard substrata, meadows of the sea-grass Posidonia oceanica and communities of bare well-sorted sand. For all these, many subtypes and facies exist, depending on the light intensity, hydrodynamic conditions, microtopography, sediment granulometry and other edaphic factors, and anthropic influences, including pollution.

Other assemblages with a limited spatial distribution include meadows of the sea-grass Cymodocea nodosa and of the Lessepsian immigrant Halophila stipulacea on sandy bottoms, the assemblages of boulder fields which are complexes of photophilic and sciaphilic communities, and those of marine caves. Our maps are supplemented by descriptions of the different habitats and macrobenthic assemblages, species lists, and semi-quantitative data on percentage cover for the dominant macroalgae, shoot density counts for sea-grass meadows, and population density counts for the main macrofaunal species.

These maps and data-sets are intended to be used (i) for assessing the status of habitats, species assemblages, and individual species, around the Maltese Islands in order to recommend appropriate measures for their conservation, including inclusion in red data lists; (ii) for designation of marine protected areas; and (iii) as baselines against which future monitoring studies and surveys can be compared.

Characterization of the Major Marine Biotopes Occurring Around the Maltese Islands: I.Biotopes of Hard Substrata

Konrad Pirotta and Patrick J. Schembri

Abstract

Although a number of studies on the marine benthic ecosystems of the Maltese Islands have been carried out, few attempts have been made to characterize and classify the major benthic biotopes occurring around the Maltese coastline. The primary objective of this study was to describe and characterize the main marine biotopes of the Maltese Islands and to devise a classification scheme which is easily applicable to the local milieu for tasks such as habitat mapping, impact assessment studies, and the formulation of environmental management plans, as well as for the identification and establishment of conservation areas and nature reserves. This paper describes the biotopes of hard substrata; a companion paper will describe those of soft substrata.

Each biotope was characterized in terms of the major geophysical, topographic and biotic features present as well as a number of other habitat specific biotic parameters, including the major macroalgal species and sessile macrofauna present, and their distribution (zonation) and relative abundance. Preliminary surveys were carried out to select sites with representative biotopes.

Belt transects were laid over the seabed by SCUBA divers, who then swam along the transects noting the parameters listed above. This was supplemented by spot-dives between the transect lines. Three major biotopes of hard substrata were identified each of which was further subdivided as follows:

1. Slope: A stretch of bedrock which extends for a considerable distance out to sea, inclining gradually. Slopes were subdivided into Gentle slopes (gradient 5º-10º) and Steep slopes (gradient 10º-40º). Both sub-types were further sub-divided into shallow (0-20m) and deep (20-60m) slopes. Slopes are dominated by photophilic macroalgae. These are mainly phaeophytes in shallow water but the assemblage changes with depth, with chlorophytes becoming more important. Where sediment overlies the rock, stands of sea-grass start appearing and eventually slopes grade into sea-grass meadows.

2. Drop-off: a submarine cliff face with a gradient of 75º or more. Drop-offs can be continuous, that is, vertical slopes with no significant breaks or ledges, or stepped, that is, having relatively wide ledges and breaks across their face. The biota of drop-offs depends on the topography of the substratum but generally consists of photophilic macroalgae overlying a sciaphilic assemblage of encrusting sponges, corals, hydroids and bryozoans. These sciaphilic forms dominate where light intensity drops, either beneath ledges or in holes and hollows in the rock.

3. Boulder field: extensive slope which is covered with detached fragments of rock the majority of which are >50cm in diameter. This terrain is very heterogeneous and is characterized by continuously changing depth and light intensity depending on the arrangement of the individual boulders. Two major types were identified; fields consisting predominately of large boulders (3-5m) and those composed mainly of small boulders (0.5-3m), although mixed fields are also common. The biota of boulder fields is very heterogeneous and consists of photophilic assemblages dominated by macroalgae where the light intensity is high and by sciaphilic ones consisting mainly of encrusting species where it is low.

Characterisation of the Major Marine Biotopes Occurring Around the Maltese Islands: II. Biotopes of Soft Substrata

Konrad Pirotta and Patrick J. Schembri

Abstract

As part of the attempt characterize and classify the major benthic biotopes occurring around the Maltese coastline, this study describes the marine biotopes that occur on soft substrata. There are two main types, those of bare sand with little evident epibiota, and those that have the sea-grass Posidonia oceanica as their main biotic component. Two major biotopes are formed by Posidonia oceanica, as follows:

1. Posidonia oceanica meadows: which may be continuous, that is, extensive areas dominated by P. oceanica with no significant patches of sand or rock, and reticulate, in which dense stands of P. oceanica are isolated from each other by patches of sand or rock. Rocky areas between sea-grass stands are colonized by photophilic algae.

2. Posidonia oceanica reef: either isolated, that is, originating out at sea, or contiguous, that is, originating from the shore. Reefs differ from meadows in having a 'matte' (a compact mass of sediment and densely packed rhizomes) which rises above the substratum to a height of about 2.5m. The living leaf stratum on top of the reef is characterized by the same species as in Posidonia meadows, but additionally, a characteristic sciaphilic assemblage develops round the exposed edges of the matte.

Analysis of a Benthos Community in a Shore Protection Zone

F. Bacchiocchi¹, U. Ceccherelli¹, A. Lamberti², R. Archetti²

Abstract

This paper describes changes of the benthos community, at the depth of 1 meter, after the construction a protected nourishment scheme realized in a small locality on the North Adriatic sea (Lido di Dante) interested by a strong erosion (Lamberti, 1994) (Figure 1).

The paper describes the performed benthos structure analysis and the correlation with the nourishment work (Bacchiocchi, 1997).

The original benthos community, probably suffered from the sands poured on the beach during the nourishment work. The new habitat to ricolonize was different from the original one, because the depth and the sand grain size changed after the nourishment, so the community evolved in a different way.

The study was based on the benthos structure analysis in correlation with environmental variables.

The first step is to collect the benthos samples in three representative points along the valued zone and close to a protected zone, so that the hydrodynamic is different. One of this point wasn't subjected to the nourishment so it represents the control zone.

The working period was from May (one week after the nourishment) to October 1996.The second step was to recognize and to count the community species. The community of Lido di Dante is poor in species: it is rich only in Lentidium mediterraneum, a bivalve common in the whole Adriatic sea.

The third step was to analyze the data concerning the new benthos community in correlation with the environmental parameters (hydrodynamics, sediments etc.).

The analysis shows that the community seems to change some of its species in order to adapt itself to the new habitat.

. H a b i t a t s,   E n d a n g e r e d   S p e c i e s,
L a n d s c a p e s   a n d   C o n s e r v a t i o n .

The Current Status of the Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus monachus, (Hermann 1779) in Foça Protected Area, Turkey

Harun Güçlüsoy¹ and Yalçin Savas²

Abstract

Nowadays, biodiversity is agreed as an important ecological concept and its relation with our lives and economy is clearly known. Within this frame, endangered species should be considered as top priority. Generally, the species being on the top of the food web indicate that any problem affecting the elements of lowest level of food web will surely have effect on the top creating a change in the ecosystem. Therefore, the taxa which take place on the utmost level of food web should be taken as "symbol species" and be used as means for the conservation activities of the whole system. One of the most suitable example of these species is critically endangered Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) which is a representative of the Mediterranean coastal ecosystem .

Mediterranean monk seal is classified among the most endangered mammals. World population of this endangered species is approximately 415-615 animals (Reijnders et al ,1997) and decreasing rapidly. The distribution of the monk seal has been shrunk in two separate regions; the Atlantic population (in Mauritania, Western Sahara and Madeira) and the Eastern Mediterranean and Aegean population (in Turkey and Greece).

Scientific investigations on the monk seal has been started in Turkey since 1964. This investigation, which is supported by the WWF Mediterranean Programme Office in Foça, regarding the "conservation" of the Mediterranean monk seal has been started in July 1993. The objectives of the research are; to collect the biological and ecological data, to determine the actively and potentially used habitats, and to find out the monk seal population in the region.

As a result of the research the existence of a small population consisting of 9 individuals were determined in the Foça Protected Area which has been declared as the first marine protection zone by the Ministry of Agriculture upon the advice of the National Monk Seal Committee in 1991. In the Foça Protected Area, a total number of 333 seal sightings have been encountered from the fishermen, research team and other sources between July 1993 and June 1996. It was observed that among the caves which are suitable for the seals to rest, 7 caves out of 11 were used actively. These caves have been checked 850 times starting from January 1994 to June 1996 as far as the weather conditions are suitable. 56 (6.6 %) times the evidence of cave usage or seals were found during the seal cave checks. Within the investigation period one pup was born within the Foça Protection Area.

The Wintering Populations of Some Waterbird Species on the Mediterranean Coastline of Turkey

Güven EKEN

Abstract

The main proportion of the wintering populations of some waterbird species in Turkey is restricted to the major deltas along the Mediterranean coastline. Pygmy Cormorant and Dalmatian Pelican, classified as Near Threatened and Globally Threatened respectively, regularly winter in the wetlands of Turkish Mediterranean coasts and new wintering sites have been determined for these species. Black Stork and Red Knot have been found to winter regularly in the Gediz Delta, for the first time in Turkey. Caspian Tern winters regularly in the Çukurova Delta, in small numbers.

Marine Parks for Protection and Tourism in Turkey

Ahmet Cevdet Yalçiner¹ and Meriç Gökdalay²

Abstract

The protected areas are compared briefly in the Mediterranean region. The policies followed in Turkey, which are for protecting the natural and cultural environment for conservation and for using the coastal resources for coastal tourism are discussed. The interaction between the protection of the coastal areas and coastal tourism is pointed out by examining the laws and their purposes. The applications are discussed. The necessary modifications on the administrative and management regulations in Turkey for better use of coastal areas by combining coastal tourism and protection are recommended. The necessities and importance of establishing and managing the marine parks in the short and long term plans are pointed out.

Basic Geomorphological Studies of Shore Platforms in the Maltese Islands

M. Buttigieg, M. Vassallo, J.A. Schembri¹

Abstract

Shore platforms are an important element in the coastal landscape of the Maltese Islands. Besides providing good access points along the local littoral they are the focus of recreational and industrial land uses. In this paper attempts are made to examine the geomorphology of shore platforms with particular emphasis made on a selected platform along the Sliema shoreline.

. F i s h e r i e s .

The Ideal Salinity Regime in Mediterranean Lagoons

Dr. Paolo Breber

Abstract

Lagoons occupy 660 000 ha of the Mediterranean coastline. The importance of their fishery is well-known; less so is the fact that even more lucrative is catering to visiting sportsmen interested in wildfowl shooting. Fish and wildfowl require that the salinity of the lagoon should ideally keep within the limits of 20 - 40 ‰ because this range fosters their source of food: benthic macrofauna and eel-grass (Zostera) prairies. In fact, the traditional hydraulic management in Mediterranean lagoons is essentially aimed at keeping the salinity values within this range. Regulating the inflow of sea- and freshwater can nowadays be greatly improved by using a computerized model.

Bio-economic Aspects of Swordfish and Dolphin-Fish Fisheries in Sicily

L. Cannizzaro¹, A. Potoschi², M. Scalisi¹, F. D'Andrea¹, T. Romeo²

Abstract

Analysis of catches, fishing effort, costs and yield of the boats of Siracusa marine which in 1996 devoted their energy to swordfish (Xiphias gladius, Linnaeus 1758) and dolphin-fish (Coryphaena hippurus, Linnaeus 1758) fishing. The fishing of swordfish is carried out from March to December by long-line (March-October), drifting gill-net (May-July), long-line for albacore (Tunnus alalunga, Bonnaterre 1788) (August-December) instead kannizzi and purse-seine to catch dolphin-fish from August to December. The inclusive of tax yields are the same as the costs of the fishing swordfish and dolphin-fish between August and December. Since between August and December a good amount of young swordfish (less than a year old) are caught, fishing dolphin-fish could create an opportunity to diversify the fishing effort.

Black Sea Salmon Hybridization and Spawning Sites Conservation

V. N. Radchenko¹ and M.Y. Aleyev²

Abstract

Primary production of Crimean forests is transformed into the secondary one with very low efficiency. One of the reasons is the island-type impoverishment of ecosystem's species component under very dry climate. The population of practically the only macroconsumer species - Salmo trutta labrax morpha fario (Pisces, Teleostei: Salmonidae),) suffers greatly from the lack of food base - several species of detrivorous Isopoda. Under this trophical stress and cyclic droughts the problem of hybridization driven genetic drift in S. trutta population came to the first rank. The species genetic structure can be eliminated by natural processes in ecosystems under today's situation during nearest years. This presentation is practically first systematic attempt to survey the remains of S. trutta population and make a conclusion on probable way of the species saving. Urgent management measures are needed for optimization of energo-material flows in freshwater hydroecosystems and creation of stable forest ones capable to support independently the natural population of S. trutta. This would enable to protect biodiversity in coastal region and nearby national parks and preserve endangered species by means of ecosystem's optimization with low financial expenditures.

Artificial Reef Development as a Mitigation Tool for Fish Habitat Enhancement

Dosoo Jang

Abstract

In this modern era, the presence of large coastal population, rapid urbanization, and more complex marine uses have resulted in major coastal resources management problems, such as coastal water pollution, natural marine habitat loss, and depletion of fishery resources. The question is how to compensate for this coastal/or estuarine natural habitat degradation or destruction? Because seagrass planting or restoring natural habitats is economically costly and technically difficult, artificial reef development is a relatively easier mitigation tool for fish habitat enhancement to achieve rational reef management. This paper emphasizes use of best scientific data available, involvement of marine scientists in a reef development project, the use of a precautionary approach, fishery resource enhancement, reef configuration, establishment of a master plan, composition of reef complex, reef co-management, and a local public participatory process.

Reproductive Biology of Mullus Barbatus and M. Surmulatus from Alexandria Waters, Egypt

A. Ezzat, C.F. Hosny & A. Osman

Introduction

Fishes of family Mullidae are considered to be of economic importance in Alexandria waters. Actually they are highly esteemed as fish food.

Reproductive biology of Mullidae, is still badly known in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters. The only study made in this concern is that of Hashem 1973. Such studies are of considerable importance in building basic & essential knowledge of the life cycle & production of fish species. This helps the fishery manager to perform a better exploitation of the existing fishery.

. B i o l o g i c a l   a n d   E c o l o g i c a l   I s s u e s .

Phytoplankton Dynamics and Ecology in a Polluted Area on Alexandria Coast, Egypt

Prof. Dr. M.M.Dorgham

Abstract

The dynamics of species composition, numerical abundance and ecology of phytoplankton community were followed up during 1996 in Mex Bay west of Alexandria. This area is subjected to different types of land based-effluents, which are loaded by variable kinds of agricultural and industrial pollutants. The physico-chemical conditions showed significant seasonal and regional variations. Salinity varied between 0.6 and 39.6, dissolved oxygen: 2.6-9.6 mg/L, pH: 6.06-8.84. The organic pollution was high, the BOD values fluctuated from 0.4 to 16 mg/L. Nutrient concentrations and phytoplankton counts indicated a high degree of eutrophication in the study area. Nitrate varied between complete depletion and 71 ug at/L and phosphate between 3.2 and 48 ug at/L.

Phytoplankton standing crop was almost abnormally high, the annual average at the different stations fall within the range 8.6 and 68.7 million units/L, with an average for the whole area of 31.4 million units/L. Remarkably high standing crops were recorded in early summer (June) reaching a maximum of 256.7 million units/L. The diatom species Skeletonema costatum was the leader of June phytoplankton forming 99.5% of the total count. In other seasons, this species was followed or substituted by Chaetoceros spp. and/or Asterionella japonica.

The significant regional variations in both physico-chemical properties and phytoplankton counts were attributed to the effect of the discharged wastes. Otherwise, seasonal variations fall within the range (0.1-118.5 million units/L) and to some extent were related to the seasonal variations in the volume of the waste waters. The level of eutrophication in Mex Bay has increased markedly as compared to the previous records.

Fresh water forms invaded the area forming sometimes 2% of the total phytoplankton count. Several species were recorded as indicators of different types of pollution.

Posidonia Oceanica Beds in the Off-shore of Favignana Island

L.Venturi¹, S.F. Vecchioli¹, M. Lucido², M.T.A. Palumbo³, P. Pepe³, A. Cuttitta³ and R. Lipari³

Abstract

The Posidonia oceanica beds in the offshore of Favignana Island (Egadi Archipelago, western Sicily) were investigated by means of a side scan sonar survey improved by some underwater inspections. The study area is localized into the marine natural reserve of Egadi Islands. Sonographic recordings showed the presence of Posidonia oceanica meadows covering large infra-littoral areas of the offshore of Favignana island. Posidonia oceanica beds start to develop upon rocky littoral abrasion platforms, and in many sites the upper limit of the meadow corresponds with rocky ledges. The upper limit shows morphological and structural features (the coincidence with rocky ledges, the localisation before rocky platforms) that guarantee steadiness conditions, confirmed also by aerial photo interpretation. Some open sea areas resulted on the contrary seriously deteriorated by trawl fishing, illegally in use along all the coasts of western Sicily. Trawl fishing causes devastating effects on the meadows for the mechanic action of otter boards leaving tracks into the matte, that can be further easily eroded by current action. Another cause of human disturbance on the meadow is ships anchoring, particularly active during winter time when ships find often a refugee from the stormy sea close to the island. Many signs of beds regression were found in anchorage areas. The assessment of density on three transects along the eastern coast of the isle, carried out by means of underwater inspections, shows a reduction of density on the area where illegal trawl fishing is mainly performed, in comparison with an undisturbed area, and a density reduction resulted also in the area in front of the local town of Favignana. The greatest effects resulted on -5m and -10m depths, while no effect resulted on deepest sites. A thematic map of phanerogamae beds in the offshore of Favignana was drawn in order to give information about distribution, features and environmental conditions of meadows surrounding the island.

Biological Diversity in the Black Sea: Main Changes and Ensuing Conservation Problems

Yu. Zaitsev¹ and V. Mamaev²

Abstract

By its geographic position and morphometric features, the Black Sea represents a classical example of an "ecological target" which has come under the influence of man's activities and has suffered deep changes as a habitat of living forms. Eutrophication, bottom trawling and accidental introduction of exotic species have led to deep changes in the biota at the level of populations, species, biocenoses and ecosystems. The most endangered are the largest biocoenoses of mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis (composed by more than 100 species of invertebrates, including endemic and relict species), brown alga Cystoseira barbata (60 species) and red algae Phyllophora nervosa and Ph. Brodiaei (90 species).

Introduced exotic marine organisms proved to be predatory for indigenous bivalve molluscs (the Pacific snail Rapana thomasiana), zooplankton, pelagic fish eggs and larvae (Atlantic ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi).

Results of a three years Black Sea Environmental Programme are presented. Specific measures are proposed to protect Black Sea keystone species (Mytilus, Cystoseira, Phyllophora), forming nuclei of large bottom communities. The establishment of new protected areas, prohibition of bottom fishing gears in certain areas, construction of artificial reefs and ballast waters control are among the recommendations presented in the article.

. E n v i r o n m e n t a l   I m p a c t s .

Carrying Capacity Model for Predicting the Impact of the Coastal Mussel Farms on the Marine Environment

B. Martincic¹ and C. Salvi²

Abstract

Marine aquaculture of filter feeder species provides an important source of high quality food and could be considered to be an important management tool to limit pressure on wild fish stocks which are heavily stressed due to overfishing and pollution in coastal areas. As such, it become one of the major competitors for the coastal areas. Site selection, in fact is probably one of the main factors that determines the feasibility and sustainability of aquaculture projects.

Carrying capacity, in the context of mussel culture, may be defined as the stock density at which production levels are maximized without negatively affecting growth rates. This study provides estimates of carrying capacity for the Gulf of Trieste situated on the northern shore of Adriatic Sea. The food supply to the system was determined from measurements of tidal exchange and particulate organic matter (POM) over the period of June 1995 to June 1996. The food demand was obtained from a numerous publications dealing with mussel filtration rate.

Food supply (g POM / week) was divided by food demand (g POM / kg mussels per week) to obtain estimates of carrying capacity for the system. These values ranged from 43 000 tons to 137 000 tons depending on temporal variations in the food supply.

Impact of Fish Farming Facilities on Coastal Ecosystems

S. Mendez, G. Pergent, C. Pergent-Martini

Abstract

While the extension of aquaculture around the coasts of the Mediterranean islands is today an economic priority, no data is available on the impact of these facilities on the littoral environment in general, and in particular on the Posidonia oceanica meadows that are responsible for the richness and diversity of these biotopes. The impact of fish farming facilities in the marine littoral environment is assessed at three Mediterranean sites in Corsica and Sardinia. Various parameters are considered: (i) the amount of light available, (ii) the nature of the sediment, and (iii) the vitality of the Posidonia oceanica beds. The findings confirm the impact of the aquaculture facilities within the water column (increase in turbidity, enrichment of the sediment in organic matter and nutrients), and it would appear that the Posidonia oceanica beds also undergo significant alterations. The decline in density of the meadows in the area that comes under the influence of the aquaculture farm and their total disappearance beneath the facilities is particularly disturbing, even if the areas affected are not very extensive, at least for the smaller farms (a few hundred square metres), and if certain beneficial effects may be recorded (increase in benthic primary production).

Impact of a Pump-Storagk Project on Quantity and Quality of Water Resources at the Estuarine Zone of the Dniestr River and its Management

V.V. Kuznetsov, I. Chernyshova, A.K.Kouzine, M.S.Kovalenko

Abstract

Considered at this paper are impacts of the proposed pump-storage project on the Dniestr River on quantity and quality of water resources at the Dniestr delta and adjacent to it coastal zone of the Black Sea. Discussed are causes of such impacts and the measures to be undertaken to mitigate them.

Environmental Problems in Harbours and Management of the Marine Environment

Prof. Dr. Abdel Aziz Abdel Baeth Hamed

Abstract

The various activities encountered in harbours are in themselves waste producers.

The sources of this waste are many and varied. Ships discharge solid and liquid, handling and storage of goods produce all kinds of refuse and waste (Hamed A.A. 1989).

Special consideration should be given to ports specialized in the traffic of certain goods, oil tanker terminals for example , where there is a high risk of petroleum product waste, both from the operational and accidental points of view . The effects of this waste can take on dramatic proportions if large amounts are discharged , and endanger human and material safety .

The same is true of ports where toxic and dangerous products are handled .

In this paper I will discuss the major forms of waste encountered in port environment and the solution of this problem.

Role Of Environmental Impact Assessment For Port Projects-Case Study

Prof. M.Karpuzcu¹, U. Malak², Dr. T. Numan³

Abstract

Coastal project negatively affects flora and faunas of the see environment during their construction period. If wash waters from ships aren't taken the equalization tank and solid wastes aren't disposed properly, also during operation period same effects on flora and fauna will occur. If necessary precautions aren't taken, both water and air will be polluted by the materials which ships bring, depending on the their contaminant. It is necessary to predict environmental impact of these kind of plant during their construction and operation period, and environmental impact assessment reports should be prepared to take necessary precautions. In this paper an EIA report study for a port project and a liquid chemical material storage plant which will be constructed at coast of Izmit Bay at eastern side of Marmara Sea which is connected the Mediterranean Sea with Çanakkale Bosphorous and Ege Sea is presented.

. L i q u i d   W a s t e   M a n a g e m e n t .

Needs for Wastewater Reuse in the Mediterranean Countries

P. A. Paraskevas

Abstract

The use of reclaimed wastewater for irrigation contributes to water conservation and therefore is an important component of a sound policy for water resources management in the Mediterranean region. In this paper, fundamental concepts of wastewater reclamation and reuse are developed, that include categories of water reuse, planning methodologies and economics, paying particular attention to irrigation, which consists the largest use of reclaimed wastewater worldwide. The quality criteria, for the domestic wastewater intended for reuse to irrigation, suggested by various guidelines are discussed thoroughly. The potential risks of human exposure to infectious agents are analyzed, and corresponding protection measures are recommended. Finally, wastewater treatment strategies are suggested and discussed in detail in order to produce the appropriate quality of effluent for water reuse.

Beach Interstitial Sea Water Quality and CSO Events

J. Flos¹, S. Pueyo¹, M.A. Rodriguez-Arias1, N. Méndez2

Abstract

In Spring and Summer 1996, the authors studied specifically the effect of Combined Sewer Overflows (CSO) in the Barcelona beaches. Special stress was put on the quality of interstitial sea water (in the sand beach), because it may work as a reservoir and thus as a secondary source of faecal pollution for bathing waters. Among the several point sources where CSO may discharge in the area, we focused on the Nova Icària beach and its neighbour Bogatell outlet. Discharges flow there between two parallel rocky break-waters which extend into the sea (100 m long).

Sampling was done on the beach and from the R/V. Interstitial water was sampled through vertical holes dug in dry sand at the limit with wet sand (swash line). Samples were analysed for total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, temperature, salinity, oxygen, nitrate, nitrite, amonia, reactive dissolved phosphate and silicate.

In order to interpret field data, we used a mathematical model that considered 4 water compartments (open sea, bay, nearshore and interstitial), forced by the CSO flow input. The hypothesis was that the interstitial reservoir, that was filled by nearshore water through breaking waves, contributed as a secondary source for bathing waters. This would strech the time interval for which nearshore waters show relatively high values of pollution indicators. Field data behave as expected for short time response, but the discrepancy with the model prediction grows with time. For times greater than 10-20 hours after CSO, we observe an increase of faecal indicators in interstitial water, while we would expect a steady decrease.

Effluent Diffusers: Intrusion Abatement and Hydraulic Optimization with Elastomeric Duckbill Check Valves

M. J. Duer¹ and Prof. Dr. I. Unsal²

Abstract

Conventional multiport diffusers that incorporate fixed diameter ports often operate at reduced efficiency as a result of salt water, sediment, and marine organisms intruding into the outfall pipe during periods of low flow. Elastomeric "duckbill" check valves prevent intrusion, independent of flow rate, maintaining the originally designed hydraulic capacity and dilution efficiency of the outfall, and potentially saving thousands of dollars in maintenance costs. The duckbill is inherently a variable orifice that optimizes conventional diffusers by generating higher jet velocities at low flows enhancing initial dilution, and generating less headloss at peak flow. Recent hydraulic testing also showed that purging of salt water from outfalls fitted with duckbills occurs at much lower flows compared to a conventional outfall.

The hydraulic advantages of the variable orifice duckbills verses fixed diameter ports are presented, along with the process of salt water purging of conventional and duckbill-fitted outfalls. This is prefaced by a review of salt water and sediment intrusion mechanisms, their associated detrimental effects, and conventional abatement methods.

Guidelines for Submarine Outfall Structures: An Analysis of the Practical Aspect

Dr. Carlo Avanzini and Pierantonio Quirici

Abstract

At present, a renewed attention is dedicated to the marine outfalls as final stage of any land based treatment plant.The increased attention to outfalls is confirmed by the decision to form "Outfall Work Groups" inside international Organisations such as IAWQ and TECHWARE. The "Guidelines for submarine outfall structures….", despite being addressed to the small and medium size coastal Communities, constitute a very important step towards a better comprehension of the correct design, construction and use of outfalls in any size. A sufficiently detailed outline on the various aspects of the outfall design and technology and their interrelation with the treatment plant and with the marine environment is given in the mentioned document.The present paper intends to extend the concepts supplied by the "Guidelines" to the more practical realisation and control phase.

Wastewater Treatment Strategies for the Mediterranean Coastal Areas

P.A. Paraskevas and Prof. Dr.T. D. Lekkas

Abstract

The Mediterranean is an almost closed sea with very little renewal of its water. Many coastal towns from small rural and fishing communities to large cities dispose their sewage into the Mediterranean. In addition, wastewater, agricultural and urban runoff of a much greater area end into the basin through rivers and streams. Much of this wastewater enters the sea with little or no treatment resulting in the gradual degradation of the sea water. Increased sensitivity of the public for the environmental pollution after seventies has imposed the application of stricter legislation by international organisations and individual countries. In this paper we review the legislation of the European Union and the Mediterranean countries adopted for the protection of the sea. In accordance with that, we evaluate the recent technologies and analyze the strategies, relative to the treatment of domestic wastewater and the disposal of the treated water safely in the environment.

. M a r i n e   P o l l u t i o n .

Investigation of Land-Based Pollution Parameters in the Surface Waters of the Black Sea

Dr. H. B. Özkoç¹, K. Saricaoglu², N. Yüzbasi², Dr. N. Balkaya¹, Prof.Dr. H. Büyükgüngör³, Prof.Dr. A. N. Onar⁴

Abstract

The seas surrounding country were polluted mainly by land-based pollutants. As a result, the evaluation of the inventories for the routine pollution monitoring programme of 34 land-based pollution monitoring sampling stations were selected at the Black Sea Coast. Seasonal changes in total phosphate and orthophosphate and detergent concentrations were determined in the samples collected from mentioned stations during 1996. At the end of the study the analytical results were compared and discussed with the related pollution quality standards of Ministry of Environment of Turkey. Concerning the total load variation of the total phosphate and orthophosphate, it is known that land-based pollutant discharging is the main pollution source for Black Sea.

In case of the variation of the detergent concentrations through the Black Sea, it was seen that all of the sewerage systems stations had high detergent values. Results had much higher values than the standard. This study is a part of the National GEF Environmental Protection and Management-National Routine Pollution Monitoring Land-Based Sources of the Black Sea Project carried out by Ministry of Environment of Turkey and Environmental Problems Research Center of Ondokuz Mayıs University.

The Nitrogen Loads Carried by Rivers and Streams to the Black Sea in Turkey

A. Özdemir¹, A. Kuleyin¹, S. Çoruh¹, N.G. Gökbulut¹, Y. Kilim¹, Prof.Dr.H.Büyükgüngör²

Abstract

The aim of this study is to investigate loads of nitrogen forms reached to the Black Sea environment along the coast of Turkey by rivers and streams.

The water samples were collected from 33 sampling points in 1996 within the Routine Pollution Monitoring Programme. The streams from which the samples were collected are Sakarya river, Melen stream, Çark stream, Alaplı stream, Gülüç stream, Kozlu stream, Zonguldak stream, Filyos stream, Bartın stream, Kızılırmak river, Mert river, Kürtün stream, Yeşilırmak river, Miliç stream, Melet river, Civil stream, Aksu stream, Fol stream, Söğütlü stream, Değirmendere stream.

NO2-N, NO3-N, NH3-N and TKN (Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen) were analysed for every samples by using Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.

The results obtained have clearly showed that NO3-N concentration of all streams investigated are not exceed 5 mg/l. It means that all of the stream water investing can be classified as First Class Waters for NO3-N according to "Continental Inside Water Sources Quality Criterion". Besides NH3-N concentration were generally found as Third Class Water Quality.

Project "Environmental Management of the Kaštela Bay"

A. Baric

Abstract

This paper describes the three-year research project "Environmental Management of the Kaštela Bay" aimed at generating the scientific base for ecologically sound management of the wider area of the Kaštela Bay.

The geographic area covered by this project encompasses the Kaštela Bay and the neighboring mainland and marine areas located in the middle of the Croatian coast. It is a densely populated area that has undergone rapid development, and in the last 50 years the initial number of inhabitants increased sixfold. A number of large industrial plants were constructed, and the already existing ones were enlarged. The industrial and urban development has not been accompanied by adequate development of communal infrastructure, which caused dramatic environmental changes and reduced the quality of life in the area.

The project consisted of three sub-projects: Methods and Modeling, Environment and Ecosystems, and Socio-Economic Systems in the Area. Each sub-project consisted of numerous tasks.

The first sub-project supported the two other sub-projects by defining the methodology for the analysis of fundamental functional regularities, identifying the dominant processes, selecting and organizing relevant data, developing appropriate models and scenarios, identifying of both optimal landuse and optimal economic activities in the area, and by developing an information system.

The second sub-project analyzed the present state of the environment, as well as the main physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the area. Based on the obtained results monitoring programmes were developed.

The third sub-project studied the development process within a particular environment, as well as the consequences of that process on the environment. Simulation models were employed in order to become aware of all possible consequences of various alternative development strategies, and to avoid or eliminate the negative ones.

Influence of the Repair Shipyard on Coastal Sea Quality

Visnja Hinic¹, Jasna Zazijal-Marusic¹, Elvis Zahtila²

Abstract

Rijeka Bay is one of the so-called environmental "hot spots" on the eastern Adriatic Coast. It is a densely populated urban area characterized by considerable industrial activity and heavy traffic. Shipbuilding industry with its three large shipyards situated within the area is one of the significant sources of marine pollution.

The repair shipyard is situated in Martinscica Cove located outside the industrial and harbour zone of Rijeka itself, and in the vicinity of a recreational area.

The content of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy metals in the marine sediment of Martinšcica Cove was measured in order to establish the level and spatial distribution of marine contamination caused by the shipyard activity that started back in 1976. In addition, a study of the macrobenthic community was also done.

The investigation was carried out at two stations inside Martinscica Cove and at one station near the cove entrance. Svezanj Cove, located 1500 meters away, still within Rijeka Bay, was chosen as reference station.

Very high heavy metal concentrations (iron 14000-19000 mg/kg DW, zinc 686-984 mg/kg DW, copper 277-231 mg/kg DW, lead 115-190 mg/kg DW, mercury 1.57-3.57 mg/kg DW) as well as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons ( total PAHs 16.0- 31.5 mg/kg DW) in sediment were found. Among individual PAHs, the concentration of benzo (b) fluoranten (7.8 - 27.6 mg/kg DW) was the highest. Content of PCBs in sediment was also high with level concentration ranging from 2.5- 3.1 mg/kg DW.

The concentration levels of heavy metals, PAHs and PCBs determined in sediment inside Svezanj Cove are characteristic of northern Adriatic coastal area which is under slight influence of anthropogenic sources.

The study on the macrobenthic community revealed only five macrofloral and seven macrofaunal species that are all characterized by very low population density. The system and distribution of macrobenthic community inside Svezanj Cove are characteristic of unpolluted sea .

Total degradation of Martinscica Cove was well confirmed. Highly loaded marine sediment may be the source of long-term pollution of the surrounding areas and needs to be further investigated.

Tracking Marine Pollution in Barcelona Coastal Waters

J. Flos¹, M.A. Rodriguez-Arias¹, S. Pueyo1, N. Méndez2

Abstract

During summer 1995 the authors carried out an extensive study on bathing water quality in the Northern coast of Barcelona (Spain). One of the objectives of the study was to know the extension of the plume originated in the submarine outfall (2.6 km offshore) that carries waste water from a urban sewage treatment plant. Pollution may enter the area also in the surface, with several point sources, namely the Besòs river and the outlets Riera d'Horta and Bogatell, that work as outfalls by Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) events. Microbiological indicators (total coliforms, faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci) were used along with other chemical and biological variables in order to characterize those waters recently affected by pollution. The great variability of salinity in the area made it reasonable to use a combination of several conservative and non-conservative variables to distinguish polluted from non-polluted water. Principal Component Analysis was carried out on the correlation matrix of physical, chemical and biological data (bacterial indicators included). A pollution index was derived from this analysis and we computed, through multiple regression and for each sampling day, estimated values for this index on all the CTD profiles, using temperature, salinity and transmittance as independent variables. The maps obtained in this way clearly show the extension of those waters that have been recently polluted, although their coliform bacterial content may have been greatly reduced, and distinguish those with surface continental origin from those entering the system through the submarine outfall.

A Strategy for an Egyptian Coastal Monitoring Programme

A. Jensen¹, Dr. M. El Zarka², E. Povlsen³

Abstract

A strategic water sampling program was designed for the whole Egyptian coast: The Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba with measurement of basic parameters (salinity and temperature), bacteriology and eutro-phication parameters at up to 80 stations every second month. The selection of the locations for monitoring was based on existing data and knowledge about the pollution sources as well as a site visit to nearly the whole Egyptian coast. Two laboratories will execute the program and will be supplied with the required field and analytical equipment. A training program will be executed before the monitoring program will start. A QA/QC procedure according to ISO Guide 25 will be implemented during a two year period at the two laboratories. The data produced will be entered into a newly designed marine database. In addition, a sampling program for flora, fauna and toxic substances will be designed during 1997 with measurements of sediments, fish and/or shellfish, coral reefs and benthos. The whole program is supported by the Danish International Development Assistance, Danida, in the period 1996-2000. The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) as the responsible organization in Egypt shall gradually take-over the operational costs of the program.

Are the Actual Bacteriological Indicators Correct in the Evaluation of the Recreational Water Health-Safety?

M.V. Torregrossa and L. Valentino

Abstract

The main type of human exposure to pathogenic microorganisms in the marine environment is through direct contact with polluted seawater, not ingestion.

The objective of this study is to investigate the presence and persistence of total staphylococci and S. aureus in sea coastal water also in absence of fecal indicators: the data of 102 coastal water samples are reported.

Aquatic Litter, Management and Prevention - the Role of Measurement

Dr. R.C.Earll¹, Prof.Dr. A.T.Williams², Dr. S. L. Simmons³

Abstract

Litter methodology has many forms and increasingly measurement is linked to management. By providing measured profiles of the quality of litter types, trends in the input of new items can be assessed and prevention programmes directed more effectively to sources: three developing methodologies are described:

1. Rapid appraisal where a framework of litter categories and pollution grades is used to map litter distribution on a broad geographic scale.
2. The benefits of using the 'species-area' approach with transects to enable quantitative data to be collected in a cost efficient manner.
3. Linking litter to an input source, requires that the qualities of individual litter items be assessed. The species area approach is useful in this context since by the time that 300 litter items have been described the main composition of a sample can be characterized and input sources attributed.

It is argued that if the cost of litter pollution is to be reduced, and prevention at source is to be achieved, measurement methods will need to be very closely linked to management efforts.

Qualitative versus Quantitative Litter Data Analysis

S.L. Simmons¹ and A.T. Williams²

Abstract

Investigation of qualitative and quantitative methods of dealing with litter were investigated and the latter deemed to be more satisfactory. Chi squares, association indices, quadrant variance methods (paired and two-term local quadrant variance), Spearman Rank, Cluster Analyses and Principal Component all were analysed with respect to data sets of litter derived from 3 transects at each of 20 riverine sites. The later two analyses were very powerful in determining associations/groupings. Eighty percent of marine litter on South Wales, UK, estuarine beaches is riverine in origin.

. C o a s t a l   M a n a g e m e n t   P r i n c i p l e s,
T e c h n i q u e s   a n d   I n s t r u m e n t s .

Multi - Lateral Banks and Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Dr. Julian S Galloway

Abstract

This paper reviews the involvement of Multi-Lateral Banks in integrated coastal zone management projects over the last half decade. It illuminates some of the lessons learned, and presents a summary of the challenges that lay ahead.

In particular, this paper outlines some key ICZM projects in China, Thailand and India, with a focus on Multi-Lateral Banks (MLBs) ICZM awareness creation and capacity building, investment portfolios, and partnership activities.

In addition to a summary of MLBs stance on general lessons learned, more detailed discussion focuses on the MLBs view of the essential components of ICZM, including the need for integration in broader development planning, the institutional, legal and financial support of Government, and the opportunities for cost recovery and financing schemes. The critical issues of local community support, engaging the public and partnerships are also presented here.

The challenges ahead for ICZM as defined by MLBs are outlined, and presented together with new ICZM projects in the pipeline, originating both from the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank.

To conclude the paper a series of recommendations are presented to summarize the challenges ahead, and the principles and processes required for the successful implementation of ICZM, as presented by MLBs. Notes regarding the importance of MLB activity in the ICZM sector, and the environmental policy development sector are intended to introduce coastal management practitioners and interested parties to a most useful source of information to assist them in the future.

Techniques for Delivering Coastal Management: Lessons from the Welsh Coast

Dr. Rhoda C. Ballinger

Abstract

The implementation of coastal programmes is achieved through a wide range of management techniques. An evaluation of these and a discussion of the factors giving rise to their adoption along the Welsh coast is provided based on a recent review of coastal management for the Countryside Council for Wales. Even within a largely sectoral system, the Welsh experience illustrates how many coastal techniques are able to facilitate integration, community involvement and sustainable development. It is suggested that the lessons learnt from this study may be useful for other European and Mediterranean countries aspiring towards integrated coastal management.

Dealing with Model Uncertainty in Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Michele Capobianco¹, Henriëtte S. Otter²

Abstract

We introduce the subject of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and we briefly discuss the role of uncertainty in it. We then define more precisely Scientific Uncertainty and Uncertainty in Decision Making. We briefly introduce the issue of Spatial Variability, that we believe is extremely important in ICZM and represents a primary source of complexity and uncertainty. Model Uncertainty is related both to the availability of information and to the possible degree of understanding that can be reached about the integral functioning of the coastal system. Principles for Complex Model Building are also briefly described as an approach to handle in a balanced way the available data, information, knowledge and experience. The practical methods of Sensitivity Analyses and Monte Carlo Simulations are then introduced as the method for a posterior evaluation of uncertainty in simulation models. We conclude by underlying the need for the Definition of an Analysis Plan in order to handle model uncertainty in a balanced way during the decision making process.

Economic Instruments in Integrated Management of the Mediterranean Coastal Zones

Ivo IMUNOVIC

Abstract

Awareness of an increasing elash between development and environment is especially emphasized in the coastal zones where two different words - me sea and the land - meet. In this paper the author presents the results of research on the use of economic instruments in the Mediterranean environment mental management policy known as "economic aid to environment". The research has been carried out in a number of Mediterranean countries chosen according to their regional position. It has shown that economic instruments are a very good tool of environmental protection, but that they assume a systematic management of natural resources. Those countries which shore used economic instruments in environmental management have decreased the pollution rate. Therefore the another stresses the weed for implementation of economic instruments following the example of developed countries and seeking original polieres applicable in specific countries.

Bulgarian Coastal Management Program- Institutional Management Structure

K.R Galabov

Abstract

In the course of the development of the Bulgarian coastal zone management program the analysis of the legislation, regulations and procedures related to the management of the Black Sea coast was held. The results have been used for the preparation of the proposals for the new integrated system of management. The main considerations in this relation are described here.

Soft Protection Technologies as a Tool for Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Michele Capobianco¹ and Marcel J.F. Stive²

Abstract

After introducing the possibility of using Soft Defence Techniques as an alternative to Hard Defence Techniques, we emphasize the need to consider The Coastal Area as an Integral System. By recalling the main driving factors for Coastal Management: Conflict, Resilience and Sustainability, we arrive at the concepts of Ecological Engineering and Ecotechnology, which are increasingly needed as possible solutions to achieve sustainable use of the coastal space as a resource. In this context we introduce the principles of Self Design and of Ecosystem Conservation. In order to deal with real situations we are in need of Fundamental "Tools" for the Application of the Soft Protection Technology Approach.

We therefore introduce the concept of Physiographic-Units and make an initial elaboration for a Coastal Stretch and for Coastal Wetlands. The latter deserve more attention because of the already established practices of ecotechnology, at least as far as water and soil quality is concerned, but certainly, more and more in the future, also concerning morphology. We conclude by briefly discussing how the activities undertaken in two research projects currently being conducted under the framework of the Marine Science and Technology Program of the Commission of the European Communities are to expected to contribute to the concepts introduced here.

. C o a s t a l   I s s u e s .

Degradation of Coastal Landscapes in the Gaza Strip-Palestine

Dr. H. Muhammetoglu (L. Mukhallalati)

Abstract

The Gaza Strip is a small area along the eastern Mediterranean Sea, densely populated with inhabitants. The only attraction for relaxation is the 40 km long coast and beaches. However, a major problem is the sever continuous degradation by pollution, dumping of solid waste, sand quarrying and construction activities. The main source of pollution is sewage system outfalls and individual sewage and sullage drains, ending either on the beach and cliffs or a short distance away in the surf zone. The open dune areas are strongly threatened by indiscriminate sand quarrying which occurs on an industrial scale. Construction of buildings, petrol stations and other facilities directly on or near the coast decreases the visual and natural value of the coastal landscape. The main factor beyond landscape and coastal degradation of the Gaza Strip can be attributed to the lack of land use planning and coastal zone management. The Gaza Strip has been neglected during the Israeli occupation which continued for about thirty years. Coastal zone management requires clear determination of the functions of the various coastal sites and zones and of the associated land and water allocations. Norms and criteria must be developed for these functions and land use allocations in order to protect and optimize their sustainability. Urgent enough financial funds are required for execution.

The Anthropogenic Impact on Romanian Black Sea Coast -Aspects of Nearshore Water Degradation-

C. Coman

Abstract

A considerable increase of the anthropogenic impact upon the Romanian Black Sea Coast has been registered during the last decades. This impact resulted in an important disturbance in marine ecosystems. This continuous coastal zone degradation has been caused by human activities, developed in the Danube hydrographic basin and near the shore, in the following major domains: i) industry and harbour, ii) shore protection, iii)waste water treatment, iv) illegal land use and sand exploitation on the beach, etc.

Today, with the ecological imbalance amplified, it the implementation of a specific strategy for environmental protection and rehabilitation on sustainable basis of the coastal zone is urgently required. The Integrated Coastal zone management law and the National Black Sea Strategic Action Plan will create in the short term future the necessary infrastructure for implementing such a national strategy

Some I.C.Z.M. Issues in Konyaalti Coastal Area (Antalya-Turkey)

N. Dipova¹ and Dr. H. Muhammetoglu²

Abstract

Konyaalty coastal area, located at the eastern Mediterranean Sea, is one of the most important touristic areas of Antalya City for its attractive beach together with the fascinating Taurus mountains. The area is interesting for tourism both for the local population and foreign tourists. However, conflicting land use activities are common in the area. Examples of these activities are gravel and rock quarrying, a petrol storage and filling installation very near to the sea shore, a busy highway runs along the coast, a ferrochromium and cement storage area, a free trade zone, a sea port, high rise residential buildings, and a proposed waste water treatment plant in addition to a long sea outfall to dispose off the sewage of Antalya city. There is a lack of proper land use planning and integrated coastal zone management in the Konyaalty coastal area. Some remedial actions are about to start such as diverting the highway some distance away from the coast. Others should be followed such as replacing the gravel and rock quarrying area in addition to the petrol storage and filling installation, prohibit the construction of high rise buildings, and monitoring the sewage treatment plant and the sea water quality in order to maintain sustainable tourism and environmental conservation of the area.

Critical Problems of the Egyptian Mediterranean Coastal Zones

Sherine Khalil

Abstract

This paper gives a general description of the conflicts and problems of the Egyptian Mediterranean Coast which underlines the urgent need for implementation of integrated management of the Coastal Zone on the local, national, regional & International levels .

The concepts and benefits of an ICZM approach are described, and its role highlighted, The paper also includes a description of the effyorts of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency to develop a national ICZM Framework and program over the last 2 years.

. I C Z M   E x p e r i e n c e s   ( M e d i t e r r a n e a n) .

Strategy for Coastal Zone Planning and Management in Gaza-Palestine

Mohammad Ajjour¹ and Sami Drabih²

Abstract

The Gaza landscape is part of a coastal plain on the Mediterranean coast sloping down gradually towards the west over a series of distinct sand dunes running parallel to the shore line. The land side area of the coastal zone as identified in the coastal zone plan covers an area of about 74 square kilometers ( 20,5 % of the Gaza region )and roughly consists of the beach and the coastal sand dunes next to the ocean.

The Palestinians were deprived from their right to access to their territorial and international waters and its resources by the Israeli occupation over the last 30 years. Oslo peace agreement gave the Palestinian Authority a limited mandate over an area extends 20 miles in the sea as a fishing zone and with coastal length of 44 Km.

Planning and development were completely neglected during the last 30 years of occupation by Israel, in which they neither planned nor implemented any type of infrastructure or services to the Palestinians, so it is assumed that most of the environmental problems were the direct result of occupation. The problems related to the coastal area are:- Destruction of beach landscape, Dumping of solid waste and construction waste, Waste water discharge to the sea environment, Beach erosion, Random and scattered development, conflicting land uses, lack of legislation, etc. .

After the return of the Palestinian Authority ,steps have been taken to improve the legal and institutional arrangements for planning, the coastal zone was identified as area of priority for planning and a first step was taken , the drafting of the Emergency Resources Protection Plan . It aims at protecting the most critical resources in Gaza for which immediate protection is crucial. These are: ground water resources, prime agricultural land, potential recreation and tourism areas, unique undisturbed landscapes, archaeological sites. Most of these resources are located in the coastal zone area. The second step taken was the Coastal Zone Land Use Plan, which is basically a plan aimed at zoning and regulating functions and activities in the various areas of the zone. Its not aimed at detailed regulations of activities, but seeks to establish a common understood , respected and supported concept of the use of the Coastal Zone and the beaches and as an area of national interest.

A management plan is still needed to assess past trends, current conditions and predict alternative scenarios for future development and to promote environmentally sound development of the coastal area, also to recommend actions concerning rehabilitation of polluted areas and conservation of coastal resources, it is also needed to suggest special requirements for tourism and protected areas management, conservation of archaeological and historical sites and other coastal issues.

The paper will briefly discuss these problems related to coastal zone, and will outline the efforts done in the past three years by the Palestinian authority and will point out the next steps to be done in order to rehabilitate, manage , and sustain the coastal zone of Gaza .

Coastal Zone Management for Cyprus: Finalization and Implementation

X.I. Loizidou¹, N.G. Iacovou²

Abstract

Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean, with a total coast length of 772 km. Especially the last two decades, the free part of the island experiences a very rapid touristic development, which is by 90% concentrated in the coastal areas.

Considering the coasts as natural resource for Cyprus, it was recognised that a coherent strategic framework was needed in order to reconcile development requirements and exploitation, with the need to protect, to conserve and where necessary improve the coastal areas. Thus, the Government of Cyprus co-financed the Study "Coastal Zone Management for Cyprus", through the European Union program MEDSPA. The Study commenced in February 1993 and was completed in December 1995. It was carried out by the Coastal Unit of the Public Works Department, Ministry of Communications and Works, in joint co-operation with the Delft Hydraulics Institute.

At MEDCOAST 95 the experiences of the first two years of the on-going, by that time, Study were presented. The present paper discusses the final stages of the Study, which included the preparation of Master Plans for coastal protection and improvement works/measures, the formulation of Policy Guidelines and the detailed design of the proposed works. The experience from the first year of the implementation of the Study outcomes is also discussed, together with the problems encountered towards this direction.

An Integrated Approach for Natural Resource Management in the İzmir Bay

Prof.Dr. A. Akyarli¹, Prof.Dr. O. Uslu², Dr. E. Saner³, E. Üçüncüoglu⁴

Abstract

Izmir Bay has undergone severe environmental damages for the past three decades due to rapidly growing urbanisation and industrialisation at her vicinity, and mistakes made in the use of natural resources. Institute of Marine Science and Technology of Dokuz Eylul University (IMST) has proposed an integrated approach to launch a comprehensive and scientifically-based natural resource management system for the Izmir Bay. This paper outlines the proposal of IMST which consists of a number of associated sub-projects and is foreseen to be executed with the co-operation of IMST, Metropolitan Municipality of Izmir (MMI) and Ministry of Environment.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management for Alexandria, Egypt

S. M. Nasr, M. El-Raey, M.H. Ahmed

Abstract

The objectives of the present work are to survey the important coastal problems and resources; to identify the existing and projected uses of the coastal areas and their interactions; to provide an integrated policy and decision making process; to concentrate on well-defined issues concerning coastal management; to apply preventive and precautionary approaches in project planning and implementation, and finally to put forward recommendation of the coastal zone of Alexandria based on lessons learned from past experience.

. I C M   E x p e r i e n c e s   ( B l a c k   a n d   B a l t i c   S e a .

Bulgarian Coastal Management Program - Coastal GIS and Data Base

Dr. K. R. Galabov

Abstract

One of the most important components of the Bulgarian Coastal Zone Management Program is the coastal GIS and data base for the Bulgarian Black Sea coastal zone (BBSCZ). According to the legal definition this coastal zone includes the area of all the coastal municipalities bordering the sea. These 14 municipalities are part of two regions - Varna with 9 municipalities and Bourgas - with 5. In this report the genera1 concept of the GIS for the coast will be presented defining the structure of the data base and the basic functions of the system on this stage of its development. The process of the GIS development, implementation and operation will be described from the point of view of the designer and system manager at the moment.

Development of ICZM in the Countries with Transitional Type of Economy (The Russian Federation Case)

Dr. Yu. G. Mikhaylichenko

Abstract

General features of ICZM development in the countries with transitional type of economy as well as peculiarities of the Russian Federation case are considered in this paper.

Sustainable Development of Coastal Zone in the Riga City

Dr. J. I. Zaloksnis¹ and A. Dumpenieks²

Abstract

Riga is the capital city of the Republic of Latvia. It lies in the midlands of the country where the river Daugava flows into Gulf of Riga. Population of Riga city is about 830 000, but territory covers 307 km2. The inland waters cover about 13 % of the whole territory of the city. The river Daugava which covers about 16 km2 within the city boundaries divided Riga into two parts. Dense hydrographical net and plain surface are main causes on bogging up processes around Riga city from ancient time. By city growing swampy territories have been built up and nobody take care on natural drainage system. Main creek's and stream's beds have been filled up or replaced by artificial tubes. It resulted in reducing of drainage efficiency and developing of secondary marches.

On the shores of the Gulf of Riga a 50 m wide beach has formed merging gradually into pine clad dunes. Very actual in Riga are use of river's and lake's banks as well sea beach which total length in city territory is about 210 km, which include 15 km of beach, 50 km banks of river Daugava, 36 km of lake's shores and 120 km of other river's banks.

Great importance have Daugavgrivas island witch lies between three big rivers (Daugava, Lielupe, Bullupe) and Gulf of Riga (territory 13 km2 = length 8,5 km x width 2,5 km). There are two natural reserves. In Daugavgrivas Complex Nature Reserve are living almost 60 species of birds (13 species are included in Red book of Latvia and 10 species of wild orchids as well as lot of other specific plants.

Vakarbullu Nature Reserve lies only 0,4 - 0,9 m above sea level. Due to its low relief autumn storms cause the danger of flooding, especially with strong north-western winds flooded the water of the Gulf of Riga into surrounding rivers.

On the Daugavgrivas island had been built Riga city waste water treatment plant with capacity 350 000 m3/day with outflow in the Gulf of Riga only 2 km from coast. Our investigation about pollution level of gulf and nutrients content as well as eutrophication shows that there are need for serious and permanent monitoring.

Important role have Riga Port which cover approximately 2,5 thousand hectares but its cargo turnover in 1996 have been 7,5 million tons. Use of coastal zone and rivers embankments have serious influence on both - land and water ecosystems.

All mentioned issues and improvement of citizens recreation at Baltic sea coast are included in the Riga city Development Plan which point out integrated coastal and sea area management, taking into account sustainable development principles.

. B e a c h e s   a n d   D u n e s .

The Development of a Beach User Climate Index and its Application to Euro-Mediterranean/Black Sea Coastal Tourism Areas

Dr.R.Morgan¹, E. Gatell², Prof.Dr. R. Junyent², A. Micallef3, Prof.Dr. E.Özhan4, Prof.Dr. A.T.Williams5

Abstract

Some previous research has suggested that in Mediterranean/Black Sea countries, optimal climatic conditions for beach use might occur outside the peak of the tourist season. Confirmation of this suggestion together with associated publicity might help to reduce undesirable social and environmental effects of extreme seasonality in tourist demand. For this to take place, better knowledge of beach user preferences in terms of climate and bathing water temperature would be required. Questionnaire surveys were carried out in Wales, Malta and Turkey to establish the preferences of north European beach users for thermal sensation and bathing water temperature, and priority levels for other climatic attributes. A user-based beach climate index was then devised based on these preferences and priorities. An existing nomogram was optimised for sedentary beach use (e.g. sunbathing), reflecting differing thermal requirements compared to scales previously used in relation to more active tourism, e.g. sightseeing. Linkage was made between the user-generated ratings for various climatic conditions and published climate data to evaluate major Euro-Mediterranean/Black Sea beach tourism areas on a month-by-month basis. The survey data and modified climate nomogram produced an index giving high scores to climates with high temperatures. As a result, highest scores were achieved by south and east Mediterranean areas in mid summer. Highest preference was given to water temperatures rather lower than those actually prevailing when other climatic factors were near optimum. Uncertainties and deficiencies were identified, but the final scores generated in this study may be regarded as reasonable approximations of the quality of resort area climates for sedentary beach use.

The Aesthetic and Environmental Perception Applied to the Regeneration of the Mediterranean Beaches of Segur De Calafell, Calafell, Coma-Ruga, El Francás and Sant Salvador (Catalonia, Spain)

M. Villares, R. Junyent, T. Gea, E. Gatell

Abstract

To talk about the coast of a Iberian Peninsula is to talk about its outside limit, the frontier marking the point of contact with the outside world. The beaches are the fundamental element of this limit and greater attention should be paid to them.

Natural errosive evolution along the coast, the reduction in sedimentary deposits, coastal rigidation, pollution and the success of speculation have combined, especially in the Mediterranean, to a serious degradation of the coast, from a physical and environmental perspective, that is also occupied by a tourist industry that needs constant renovation and impulse, whether from the external demands of quality, or from the ever more critical domestic demand.

This problem has reached a significant dimension in Spain and the Law of Coasts (1969), the Law of Coastal Protection (1980), and the Law of Coasts (1988), manifest the importance that this area has acquired for the users and the government. Even so, it is appropriate to mention that the view held referring to the marine environment through legislation is somewhat restrictive, explained perhaps by the weight of activity concentrated on the occupation of beaches and their surroundings related to tourism and pleasure.

As a result of this renewed sensitivity the Ministry of Environment is carrying out a large number of actions along the whole coastline in accordance with an ambitious plan for the complete regeneration of the beaches. The main aims are, in agreement with the Law of Coasts (1988), the defence of the coastline and the maintenance and improvement of our coastal heritage because of tourism and the large number of users involved. But the problems faced by our coasts go further than simple legislation or the area's physical attributes. This part of public property continues to involve more and more different areas.

Currently, the social factor is becoming extremely relevant when decisions have to be made, and in this way it is necessary to understand actions taken on this environment as a service.

Therefore environmental, aesthetics and physical quality of an action, is nothing more than a series of services that the citizen expects as a consequence of the price, the image, and the reputation of the service. What is more, the service must be available during and after the action.

It would seem that the quality of such actions have not been what was expected on Mediterranean beaches, and users have made their complaints heard, and their disagreement about what was being done and the results offered.

Our study is centred on evaluating the parameters of the regeneration actions and in detecting which of them were not appropriate for the users, and what kind of results would satisfy them.

This analysis has been carried out by means of a pilot study along the beaches of Segur de Calafell, Coma-ruga, El Francás and Sant Salvador which are under the municipal jurisdiction of Calafell and El Vendrell in the province of Tarragona.

Beach Failure and Real Estate Market

E. Drei¹, A. Lamberti², R. Archetti²

Abstract

The beach is a service infrastructure which, together others as bars, receptive and entertainment structures, defines the quantity and the quality of the tourist offer. The macroeconomics conditions (cost/inflation, exchange, etc...) and the advertising define the demand. The tourist fluxes are defined from the intersection of the offer and the demand. Not always specific factors control the result, in fact the tourist satisfaction process makes irrelevant some factors while the process is controlled by the most cogent. So the receptivity was defined in 1983-86, while in 1989-90 the water quality has controlled the beach receptivity. The beach width is modified from erosion only in the two cells in front of the village. This part of the beach is frequented from tourists stayed in hotel and in flats (about 50% of Lido di Dante tourists). So, in this area, only in 1992-95 the erosion has presumably controlled the tourist flux. This explains the small effect by erosion on the general tourist flux. But if the beach disappeared, there would be a slump of the tourist fluxes and of the estates value as in consequence of the "mucillagine" effect in 1989-90.

The work analyses the collected series of data related to the tourist flux at Lido di Dante during the years 1978-1995. This is examined taking into account the general flux of the arrivals and their presence, the origin of the tourists and their distribution related to the receptive typology (Drei, 1997).

The analysis develops in the following steps:

• collection of information from the real estate brokers;
• definition of the variables and the environmental parameters which affect the estate value in sea sites.

The paper is divided in two main part:

1. The study of the effects induced by coastal erosion on the tourist flux;
2. The study of the effects induced by the realisation of the beach rehabilitation on the Lido di Dante's estate.

Kazantip Gulf Sand-Dunes: Today State and Management Ways

Pavel E. Gol'din¹, Nikolai M. Kovblyuk¹, Alexei L. Sergejenko¹, Dr.Evgeny B. Gol'din²

Abstract

Sand-dune strip at the Kazantip gulf coast (Sea of Azov, Northern coastal zone of Kerch peninsula) is an example of unique relief form, the only for the Crimea. It includes 5-6 dune ridges at the area of approximately 1.5 km length wise and 400 m wide. Sand-dune relief has determined the development of extremely rich and various cenosis. Its basis is formed by psammophyte steppe and sublittoral associations enriched by feather grass steppe elements from adjoining territories. The conducted investigations at the strip have shown the presence of endemic Crimean species as in flora so in fauna and also some populations of high protection level needing. Also concentrated at a small area landscape diversity (from sublittoral zone to different steppe types) is an object of high interest. We designed a programme including cenosis restoration and its long-term conservation. Thus it's offered necessary: estimation of microecosystem biodiversity; determination and marking of exact borders of the high extent diversity carrying area; putting in order the area and its maintenance; preparing of instruments for imparting of protected area status to the coastal strip, possibly in the frames of existing ones, in particular the Kazantip area. This sand-dune strip is suggested by proposal authors as a "protection point" model. Nowadays increase of coastline economic employment caused by recent free enterprise growth in Ukraine has led to exploitation of Azov coastal areas weakly affected by anthropogenic influence before. Some of them are possessed of extremely high biological diversity. The arisen situation makes necessary the conservation of natural microcomplexes having not got protected area statute especially in the Crimea. There is a threat for them from numerous non-organized tourist groups bringing a lot of damage for such unique areas especially in summer. Sand-dune strip is outside the borders of existing or supposed reserved areas. It would make possible the subsequent establishment of protection status of this strip and probably some other unique zones in the future conserved a high biodiversity level. Moreover they would take into account of biocenosis species structure including rare and endemic species, also populations scale. Creation of the "protected points" system at the coastal zone will lead to the conservation of region biodiversity even after its conversion into recreation zone. The elaborated methods of biodiversity estimation would be base of subsequent investigations in the field of "protection points" creation. The registration of protected area status would be legal precedent of the same forms of reservations in Black Sea coastal region.

. L e g i s l a t i o n   a n d   P u b l i c   P a r t i c i p a t i o n .

Coastal Legislation and Implementation in Turkey Prospects for Co-operation

F. Eke

Abstract

This paper has two parts. The first part deals with the present Turkish coastal legislation, tracing its development and describing its main features. A critical analysis on the rules and regulations shaping the Turkish coastal areas is carried out, pointing its sectoral character and how implementation increases the relative impact of this shortcoming. Possible solutions with reference to Turkey which can be adopted within an integrated Coastal Zone Management approach are also reviewed.

The second part of the paper examines the international studies Turkey is involved in both concerning the Mediterranean basin and the Black Sea Coast and prospects for transfrontier co-operation in coastal areas.

Experiences of Special Environmental Protection Areas in terms of Coastal Management: A Suggestion for the Restructuring of Legal and Institutional Structure

G. Gündogdu, K. Aday

Abstract

Since 1970s, Turkey has been experiencing difficulties in coastal management which are closely related to the contradicting development strategies and the use of resources without comprehensive approach. Turkey, being a developing country, has limited resources and facilities in the fields of science and technology. In addition, existing technical resources have not been used efficiently. Sometimes, technical/human resources may be used for the benefits of certain interest groups. As a result, highly political society and organisations may cause misuse of legislation.

The provinces in coastal areas generally have higher urbanisation rates than other inland provinces and have increasing pressure through migration from rural areas. High migration rate together with unplanned construction in coastal areas, cause serious impacts in terms of loss of unique natural, historical and cultural features. The lack of co-ordination between responsible institutions and not having a single responsible authority for coastal management also added to unplanned development and rent booty to the greater extend.

As a result, " Special Environmental Protection Areas " have been identified in Turkey to preserve the historic, natural and cultural values for the future generations. The step following the announcement of Special Environmental Protection Areas was the establishment of the Authority for the Special Environmental Protection Areas, on July 5, 1988. As of March, 1997 there are 12 Special Environmental Protection Areas in Turkey and analytical research and planning studies have been undertaken for them by this Authority.

In this paper, the general problems of coastal management in Turkey, the coastal management and planning problems of Special Environmental Protection Areas will be reviewed. In the first part, legal and institutional framework belonging to coastal areas are discussed. In the second part, experiences in coastal zone management are explained. In the third part, constraints and modifiers are also explained. In the final part, we shall create an alternative model for the legal and institutional framework in coastal zone management in Turkey.

Coastwatch UK - A Public Participation Survey

Dr. K. Pond and Dr. G. Rees

Abstract

Education and public participation are recognized as important elements of coastal zone management. The current paper describes the UK's largest public participation survey concerned with coastal issues. Coastwatch UK involves thousands of volunteers in an annual survey of the coastline. The project has several aims - primarily to provide an insight into the major problems and threats to the coastline and, through the involvement of volunteers, to raise public awareness and aid environmental education at all levels.

VOLUME 2

. S u s t a i n a b l e   D e v e l o p m e n t   a n d
R e g i o n a l   M a n a g e m e n t .

Local Economic Impacts of Tourism: The Case of Çeşme, Turkey

Ö. Ünal

Abstract

Tourism is one of the primary sectors of national, regional and local economies which encourages economic development and prosperity. Growing importance of this sector is frequently indicated by income generation and employment opportunities it provides. Although economic impacts at national and regional level have been fairly well considered for various destinations by researchers, its local economic impacts have gone unnoticed. However, it is widely accepted that analysis of the impacts of tourism provide the necessary inputs for efficient and effective tourism policies, planning and management.

The principal aim of this paper is to present the economic impacts of tourism in one of the most popular coastal destinations of the Turkish Aegean. Beside ever-increasing second home developments, Çeşme also attracts foreign tourists traveling mainly by package tours and Northern Europe is the predominant market. This is largely due to its Mediterranean climate, price suitability of its tourist product, and policies of the local government which encourage package tourism.

This paper presents the results of the economic impact research which uses 1996 tourism expenditure figures and provides detailed information to policy-makers on which sectors of tourism should be encouraged in order to meet particular planning and management policies.

Small Islands and Sustainabilty - A question of conflicting demands ?

A. Micallef

Abstract

This paper is not necessarily about whether small islands are sustainable; they are in theory especially if one considers a small island where few or no inhabitants expect to earn a living, let alone aspire to modern day social standards and often misguided material quantity rather than quality. More pertinent is to query whether sustainable development in small islands is viable, in practice! In essence, can a small island's often weak economy and limited human and natural resource base survive such a development approach? Alternatively, can it afford not to attempt such a course of action ?

Addressing the Implementation of the 1996 Protocol to the London Convention, 1972, Within the Framework of National ICM Programmes

M. Dyoulgerov

Abstract

The recent review of the London Convention, 1972, leading to the adoption of the 1996 Protocol thereto, reflects a marked change in the control of dumping of wastes or other matter, with a focus on identifying and implementing alternative solutions on land. The 1996 Protocol comes at a time when international project development and management mechanisms are the object of radical restructuring, in conjunction with the restructuring of the United Nations system itself. This will inevitably affect the ability of the states with developing and transition economies to ratify and implement the 1996 Protocol. Integration with other relevant environment- and development-oriented fora and programs, together with flexible, resource-efficient, and well-coordinated use of limited funds, will therefore be a prerequisite if the implementation of the 1996 Protocol is to rely on international support.

This paper identifies the merits of national Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) programmes as a possible framework for the implementation of the 1996 Protocol to the London Convention, 1972. It provides an outline of the basic principles of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) and existing ICM guidelines together with an analysis of the relation between the 1996 Protocol and the ICM framework. With due regard to the changes affecting the development field, the paper suggests that national ICM programmes could provide an appropriate framework for the implementation of the 1996 Protocol.

The Black Sea: Another Environmental Tragedy in Our Times?

J. Sorensen¹ , F. Gable² , M. Gardner3, D. Hinrichsen4

Abstract

Over the last six years, the severe environmental degradation of the Black Sea has been the topic of many newspaper, magazine and journal articles, as well as technical reports. Since 1993 many millions of dollars have been spent by the Black Sea Environmental Programme to prepare and implement a comprehensive plan to "save" the Sea. However, despite the best of intentions, the money spent may be too late and too little to change the Sea's fate, particularly in respect to its fishery resources and its coastal tourism attractions. The primary cancer which is ravaging these resources is the process of eutrophication that is fueled by the huge inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus from the Black Sea's drainage basin. This paper assesses key quantifiable costs and benefits associated with arresting the eutrophication process and concludes that costs appear to far outweigh the benefits. If, in fact this will be the situation, it is conjectural that the international donor community and the seventeen nations which comprise the Sea's drainage basin will be forthcoming with adequate funds to arrest the growth of the eutrophication cancer and the Black Sea will become another international environmental tragedy which our generation will pass on to the next generation.

. T h e   U s e   o f   R e m o t e   S e n s i n g   a n d   G I S .

Impact of Continental Margins in the Mediterranean Sea: Hints from the Surface Colour and Temperature Historical Record

V. Barale and I. Zin

Abstract

The surface colour and temperature fields of the Mediterranean Sea differentiate between basin interior and continental margins affected by mesoscale dynamic features, river plumes, and coastal patterns. In order to highlight the impact of near-coastal features in the Mediterranean, time series of basin-wide images were developed, based on the CZCS (1979-1985) and AVHRR (1982-1991) historical archives. The data were processed to apply calibration factors, to correct for atmospheric contamination, and to estimate chlorophyll-like pigment concentration and surface temperature. Composites were derived, as monthly and annual means, using a fixed equal-area projection with a 1 km2 pixel grid. Enhanced pigment values and lower temperatures along the northern coastal areas (i.e. the Ligurian, Provençal and Balearic basins, as well as the Adriatic Sea and the northern Aegean Sea) have been associated with the impact of runoff from continental margins (i.e. both a direct impact due to the sediment load and one induced on the planktonic flora by the associated nutrient load) and with vertical mixing due to the prevailing winds (i.e. the Mistral in the northwest, the Bora in the Adriatic, the Etesians in the Aegean). The pattern of increasing pigments and decreasing temperatures is seen to develop in the monthly images from the coastal zone towards the open sea from summer to winter, and then back from winter to summer. The southern coastal areas show different values, namely lower pigments and higher temperatures (except in areas where the data are altered by signal contamination). It is suggested that differences in geomorphology and meteorology of the basin margins have an impact on both water bio-geo-chemistry and dynamics, influencing the bio-optical and thermal properties of the various sub-basins, and of the entire Mediterranean region.

Surface Hydrology Influence on Coastal Pigments Concentration

M. Minacapilli¹, M.L. Paracchini², S. Folving², F. Bertolo2 and V. Barale2

Abstract

Historical time series of CZCS (Coastal Zone Colour Scanner) data have clearly revealed a large variation in the pigment concentration around the coast of Sicily. As the maximum in the concentration seems to occur during the winter period it would be expected that the major part of the pigments consisted of sediments washed into the coastal area by fluvial run-off. In 1995, a multi-source environmental monitoring development Programme for Sicily provided the possibility to examine if a correlation between run-off and erosion in the Simeto watershed and near coastal pigment concentration could be established. The main part of the study concerned the establishment of a distributed erosion model for the whole watershed. Remotely sensed data, precipitation data and a digital terrain model were used for assessing the sediment production from sub-basins and the total watershed. Sub-basin run-off and sediment production showed high correlation with the measured sediment concentrations in some of the water reservoirs in the watershed. The second part of the study dealt with the direct link between sediment concentration in the run-off and the coastal pigment concentration and showed a good co-variation in the coastal pigment concentration (mg/m3) and the sediment concentration (kg/m3) measured at the station inside the watershed. Even if the data are not measured concurrently, the results are interpreted as a clear sign of the potential of using near coastal pigment concentration as an environmental indicator for coastal watershed erosion problems.

Impact of Human Activities on Littoral Ecosystems : Contribution of « Sonar » Image Analysis

Vanina Pasqualini¹, Philippe Clabaut², Lamia Benyoussef3, Christine Pergent-Martini1, Gérard Pergent1

Abstract

Posidonia oceanica seagrass beds represent the main ecosystems of the Mediterranean. The accurate mapping of these habitats along the Corsican coast was undertaken in order to manage this natural heritage and to evaluate the impact of human activities on this environment. The mapping of deep seagrass beds (below 20 m in depth) requires the utilisation of suitable techniques such as the side scan sonar. The interpretation of these sonar images (sonograms), however, has always been performed manually. Such a procedure represents a great deal of fastidious work and does not allow the finer details of assemblages and bottom types to be accurately determined. In addition, the subtle variations in seagrass bottom cover, in particular at its lower limit, as well as the various signs of human activity (e.g. tracks left by boat anchoring and trawling) were examined and selectively quantified using image analysis techniques. The results generated were calibrated using observations obtained by SCUBA divers and reveal the complementary nature of these two techniques and the high potential that they represent.

Remote Sensed Monitoring of Landscape Processes Occurring at Different Scales in Dry Dunes and Salt Marshes.

D. Assendorp¹, Dr.F. van der Meulen², J.A.M. Janssen3

Abstract

Dry dunes and salt marshes are (near) natural habistats which make up most of the Dutch coast. Also at a European scale, these habitats have a large distribution. Because of their high biodiversity they have important natural values.

In order to preserve or restore these natural values, managers aim at counteracting grass encroachment and stimulating natural dynamics. This often results in small scale vegetation patterns with many gradients. Grass encroachment is caused by a set of factors, one of them being air pollution. The exploitation of gas under the Wadden Sea is expected to cause land subsidence at the gradient rich salt marshes on the Wadden Island of Ameland.

In order to detect the changes in vegetation associated with grass encroachment, natural dynamics and land subsidence, several techniques of remote sensing have been tested. They are traditional vegetation mapping at scales of 1:18000 and 1:5000 and mapping based on digital image processing (resolution of 0.75x0.75m and 0.25x0.25m in the field).

Scale or resolution and the mapping technique are crucial in the success of a monitoring programm with remote sensing material. Using digital imagery in monitoring programs is very useful but is, in comparison with analogue images, much more demanding in the requirements of material and image processing techniques.

Analysis of Mediterranean Sand Dunes Using Digital Imaging

Dr. R.H.F. Curr¹, E. Edwards², A. Koh³, Prof.Dr. A.T.Williams⁴, Dr. P. Davies⁵

Abstract

The Mediterranean region plays host to some 33% of the world's tourism industry. This population of visitors (around 147 million in 1990) inevitably exerts an enormous impact on the natural resources of this coastal zone. So great is the density of p.

Surf Zone Detection by Satellite Images at Taichung Coast in Taiwan

Dr. J.T. Juang¹, J. Wu², Dr. J.F. Chen³

Abstract

In this study, 11 satellite images which detected from the Taichung coast at different time and different tidal level was selected to analysis. From those images, the change of the topography of the shoreline at different tidal level was obtained. Results show that the cross sectional slope in the surf zone which at the study coast area was very mild. When the tidal level descend 1 meter then 2 square kilometer of the surf zone area was exposed out roughly. Furthermore, the correlation between the water level of tide and the exposed area was obtained also. Besides, in order to understand the departed distance between the shoreline which detect out from the satellite image and the actual shoreline in the scene, the field survey was done while the satellite is passing over. Comparisons shows the averaged departed distance about 2 pixels. It is encouraged.

Mapping of Marine Resources by Means of Geostatistical Analysis and GIS Technology

G. Garofalo¹, L. Fortunati², L. Cannizzaro¹, M. Scalisi¹

Abstract

The Gulf of Castellammare, located in north-western Sicily (low Tyrrhenian sea), is the proposed area for an experimental study carried out by means of GIS technology. This area presents some remarkable environmental features.

. P h y s i c a l   I s s u e s .

The Heat Storage in the Mediterranean Sea

S.H. Sharaf El-Din¹, I.A. Maiyza², F.M. Eid¹, A.F. Sabra¹

Abstract

Using the climatological atlas based on the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC), Washington D.C. and the Egyptian National Oceanographic Data Center (ENODC), the heat storage and its distribution in the Mediterranean Sea at surface (0-150m) and Intermediate (150-600m) layers during the different seasons were studied. The results revealed the area of cyclonic and anticyclonic at which the heat concentrated or spread advectively or convectively .

In general, the values of heat storage in the Mediterranean Sea for the surface layer increased eastward as well as from north to south reflecting the distribution of surface water temperature in the Mediterranean Sea.

The higher mean values of the heat storage within the surface layer are found during summer, where it varied between 9.45 x109 J/m2 in the northern part of Western Mediterranean Sea and 11.53 x109 J/m2 in Levantine basin ; while the lower ones are observed during winter where it changed between 7.79x109 J/m2 and 10.12 x109 J/m2 in northern part of Western Mediterranean Sea and Levantine basin respectively. The mean values of the heat storage within the intermediate layer varied between 24.0 x109 J/m2 and 26.8x109 J/m2 for the different seasons in Alboran Sea and Levantine basin respectively.

Depressions Tracks over the South Eastern Part of the Mediterranean Sea

Prof.Dr. A.A.A. Baeth Hamed

Abstract

The surface synoptic charts of the Mediterranean Sea taken over 12 years from December 1968 to November 1980 every 6 hours (at times 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 UT), 17532 synoptic charts were used is this study.

The analysis of these synoptic charts, including the drawing of isobaric contours every 2.5 Hpa. to determine the depressions.

The Eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea was considered the area to the east of Longitude 20 E.

The depression track was defined as a virtual line connecting the variable centers of the depression during its course from the start to its end (Hamed, A.A. 1979).

In this study the tracks were classified according to two main factors:

1. The common direction of the motion of each track.
2. The common weather features along the Egyptian Coast of the Mediterranean Sea associated with each track.

The different depressions tracks in each season are studied, the total number of the pressure types studied and used in this analysis are 1674.

The results indicated the following:

1. There are 6 depressions tracks during winter season.
2. There are 6 depressions tracks during spring season.
3. There are no moving depressions during summer season.
4. There are 4 depressions tracks during autumn season.
5. In winter season there are 3 depressions tracks give the strongest effect on the weather conditions along the Egyptian Coast of the Med. Sea.
6. In winter season there is one track that gives a largest amount of rainfall along the Med. Coast of Egypt, also this track causes the strongest wind along the Egyptian Coast of the Med. Sea.
7. There are two depressions tracks give the strongest effect on the weather conditions along the Egyptian Coast of the Med. Sea in spring season.
8. In autumn season there are two depressions tracks, give the strongest effect on the weather conditions along the Egyptian Coast of the Med. Sea.

Changes of the Water Levels in the South - Western Baltic Sea

Prof.Dr. J. Jensen¹ and C. Blasi²

Abstract

The aim of this study concerning the gauging stations along the south-western Baltic coastline was to compose time series of mean water levels (MW) as well as those of annual extreme values (HW) since the beginning of regular observations. By composing complete time series of water level data starting back from year 1812 a basis for more advanced investigations has been provided; these may include the eustatic rise in sea levels in the south-western Baltic Sea or the relative movement between land and water level, correspondely the relative sea level rise. In addition, the time series and trend corrected time series of annual extreme water levels (storm surge water levels) permit to make assessments based upon the theory of probabilities on the frequency of occurrences of storm surges.

Distribution of Suspended Particle Matter in Surface Water in the South-Eastern Black Sea

C. Erüz, E. Köse, F. Durukanoglu, M. Bahar

Abstract

South, eastern Black Sea coasts receives the most rainfall in the Black Sea. A lot of small rivers transports sediments to sea and effects the composition of sea water. These suspended sediments show distribution through the coastal line and from coast to away from coast. In this study, suspended particle matters in chosen stations between Trabzon and Rize were measured and suspended particle matter distribution in the sea were investigated. In the coastal zone, the amount of suspended matter increases when fresh water input increases. But, erosion due to road building effects this and seasonal distribution stays unchanged.

. W a v e s .

Wind Wave Climatology of the Black Sea and the Remaining Turkish Coast: The Progress of the NATO TU-WAVES Project

E. Özhan, S. Abdalla, E.S. Arikan, I. Barut, G. Piskin

Abstract

A major project, called the NATO TU-WAVES Project, which aims to find out the wave climate affecting the Turkish coast as well as the whole Black Sea region, is being carried out since the beginning of 1994 within the framework of the NATO SfS Program - Phase III. The main objectives of this project are to obtain detailed knowledge on wind waves and to establish a reliable data bank, to implement an advanced (third generation) wave model for the seas surrounding Turkey, and to construct a wave atlas for the Turkish coast and the Black Sea basin. The first two objectives are already realized while the third (i.e. the wave atlas) is in progress. The procedures and techniques for obtaining the wind fields, wave hindcasting, wave atlas presentation and, partially, the wave statistics have been set-up. General description of the project and the ongoing activities are given with special emphasis on the accomplished tasks.

Long Term Probability Distribution of Significant Wave Heights along the Turkish Mediterranean Coast

S. Abdalla¹, E. Özhan² and G. Buharali¹

Abstract

Long term probability distribution of significant wave heights at two stations (Alanya and Dalaman) along the Turkish Mediterranean coast was investigated. Both measured wave heights and wave heights predicted by using a third generation wave model (METU3) and the ECMWF analysis wind fields, are used in the analysis. Various probability distribution models were fitted to both types of data. Two methods were considered for the fitting process: least squares method (LSM) and method of moments (MOM). Two criteria for rejection and selection of the candidate model distributions are also used.

Short Term Statistical Characteristics of Wind Waves off the Turkish Coast

E. Özhan¹, S. Abdalla², M. Turhan

Abstract

The wind wave records obtained at four locations along the Turkish coasts (Alanya, Dalaman, Sinop and Bozcaada) are analyzed. Probability distributions of individual wave characteristics (wave height, wave period and wave steepness) in deep water are obtained and compared with some of the widely used model distributions. Goodness of fit of the observed distributions is checked by ?2 test. Joint probability distribution of individual wave heights and periods is compared with some of the available model distributions. The correlation between individual wave heights and periods is investigated. The change of the distribution of wave characteristics with increasing the size of data is investigated by combining the several wave records and analyzing them as a single data set. The relationships among various statistical wave height parameters and statistical wave period parameters are compared with the theoretical and reported empirical values.

Run Length Statistics in Shallow Water

A. Velcheva and Dr. Z. Cherneva

Abstract

The wave groups have been analyzed in a term of individual wave heights. A widespread definitions of run of high waves and total run, given by Goda are used in this study. The variation of length of run from deep to shallow water have been obtained on the based of field data. The correlation coefficient between two wave heights in succession has been utilized and studied as a governing parameter, which is most influential on the phenomena of wave grouping. The transformation of this correlation coefficient in nearshore zone is also traced. These study are made, using field data, collected during international experiment "WAVE'90", which was held at the Research Station "Shkorpilovtzi" of Institute of Oceanology.

. C o a s t a l   S t r u c t u r e s   a n d   E I A .

A Reliability-Based Risk Assessment Model for Coastal Projects

C.E. Balas¹ and Prof.Dr. A. Ergin²

Abstract

The construction of coastal systems is generally administered in the form of multiple unit construction projects which require considerable proficiency in project management, since the primary bottleneck associated with such kind of projects is the accurate planning of construction activities with the inclusion of risk factors, such as risk of damage to the structure during the construction period and uncertainties related to the design. Within the scope of this paper, the basis in the development of Optimum Risk Management (ORM) model which includes the risk factors in coastal projects and aims to maintain the project objectives within predetermined time and budget constrains is discussed. The primary risk factors and uncertainties that affect the design of marine structures and planning of coastal projects are systematically identified and the rationality for the incorporation of these factors in the model are justified. Archives of Railways, Seaports and Airfields Construction General Directorate of Transportation Ministry (TM-RSACGD) are studied; and deviations encountered in expected completion time estimates of main harbor construction and repair projects executed in Turkey between the years 1987 and 1995 are provided. Dispersement of major categories of delay sources inherent in these projects is studied and utilization of the variation statistics in the ORM model is contributed.

Influence of Water Depth to Wave Runup on Triangular Step Dyke

Dr. J.T. Juang¹, Dr. C.C. Chien², J.D. Chiang²

Abstract

In this study, a multi-channel of wave flume was used for the experimental research on the wave runup. Four kinds of the dyke slope angle say cot*=0.5, 1, 2, 3 and different triangle step slope dyke surface height (h=0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 cm) as well as various water depth (D=40, 35, 30, 25, 20 cm) where in front of the dyke toe was chose to test. Results show that the decrease of the water depth was useful to decay the relative runup height when the dyke slope cotq equal to 0.5 and 1. But when cotq=2 and 3, its effect was not obvious. Furthermore, although the roughness of the dyke surface can decrease the relative runup, but it is doubtful that the more the rough surface the higher the triangular step height the more the relative runup height decreased. In case of this study, when the step height h=1 cm then the decrease rate of the relative runup height almost have the same efficiency as the other of the higher step's.

Berm Breakwater in the Tidal Inlet of Hornafjördur, Iceland

S. Sigurdarson¹, S. Einarsson¹, O. B. Smarason², G. Viggosson¹

Abstract

Berm breakwaters have been designed and constructed by the Icelandic Maritime Administration (IMA) since 1983. Over 20 berm structures have been constructed or repaired with this method so far and further 2 will be built every year for the next 2-3 years. A thorough quarry investigation has proven to be a valuable part of the design process in preparation for successful breakwater projects in Iceland.

A curved jetty of berm type was constructed in the tidal inlet of Hornafjördur during the summer of 1995. Due to the severe wave action and strong current the design of the jetty and the toe protection is of berm type. A rational design made it possible to construct the first phase of the jetty within 14 days to eliminate the expected tip erosion caused by current. The jetty is 330 m long in addition to the 200 m long shore protection along the tip of the East Barrier. Several stone classes from 0.2 tonne up to over 10 tonne were used and the total volume of structure was about 100,000 m3. The predicted quarry yield over 2 tonne was 25-30% which the design aimed to utilise completely to the advantage of the berm structure. This was succeeded and a 100% utilisation of the quarry was achieved. The measured bulk factor from solid rock to blasted material in the structure was 1.53.

Environmental Concerns for Marina Planning in the Gulf of Suez

A. G. Abul-Azm¹ and K. A. Rakha²

Abstract

This paper presents a case study where numerical modeling was utilized for the first time to estimate the shoreline changes during the planning of a private pleasure marina in the Gulf of Suez. This study was made to compliment an environmental impact assessment study (EIA) requested by the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA).The paper presents data collected during two surveys and the results of the numerical model. The impact of the marina on the sediment budget was investigated using GENESIS program. One of the main reasons of the study was to confirm the choice of the marina location to ensure minimum erosion to the shoreline. In the model, the sediment transport calibration constants were determined using the results of the two surveys and based on the sediment transport rate as predicted by Kamphuis (1991). Choice of the formula is discussed in the paper. Two locations of the marina was tested against minimum erosion in the down drift side of the marina. This study was performed in close coordination with the EEAA, several solutions were given to minimize the expected accretion and the final location was approved.

Jen Jen's Harbour Environmental Impact

T.Matouk¹ ,A.Abdelbaki², M.Boudouma³

Abstract

In this paper an environmental impact assessment on a sandy beach related to hydrodynamics and morphodynamics process due to Jen Jen Harbour is described. Counter measures to face the severe erosion threatening an electric power plant site located on the West side of the port, are briefly presented.

. B e a c h e s .

Sorting on a Two-Dimensional Beach

Y.Asar¹, Prof.Dr. Y. Yüksel², Prof.Dr. S. Kapdasli³

Abstract

Change of coastal morphology depends on incident wave conditions, beach slope and sediment characteristics. Stratified layers of finer and coarser sediment within a beach occur due to the alternations of stronger and weaker wave action. In this present work, it was found that finer materials are deposited on the beach profile crest. However, the coarser grains are gathered on the shoreline, through, ridge and toe of the beach profiles. Also the sorting process along the winter profiles was investigated in order to find out the effect on gradation on the stability of coastal morphology.

Wave Diffraction Behind Two Beach Protection Layouts

Prof.Dr. E. Benassai¹, Prof.Dr. A. Ragone¹, M. Gonella², P. Polo²

Abstract

Using numerical model simulations two different typical coastal protection layouts have been analysed. Emerged and detached breakwaters, oriented against the dominant sector of wave propagation compose the first kind of defence. The second layout is a submerged breakwater parallel to the coastline with artificial nourishment of the beach. The behaviour of the structures submitted to multidirectional waves has been studied with wave and hydrodynamic simulations. The study sites are located along the Emilia-Romagna coast of the Adriatic Sea (Lido di Savio) and at the Volturno mouth on the Tyrrenian Sea (Castel Volturno), respectively. The protection layout applied at the Volturno mouth seems more efficient than the layout of Lido di Savio with regard of the wave diffraction behind the structure and it produces a less impact on the recreational use of the beach.

Morphological Change of Beach Profiles

Dr. E. Çevik¹ and Prof.Dr. Y. Yüksel²

Abstract

The sediment movement perpendicular to shoreline is important for the short term variations of coasts. This paper presents a number of flume experiments conducted for the determination of the volumetric change of beach profile for different wave conditions, two different initial beach slopes and constant beach grain size. From this experimental study, for the step type beach profile the volume of the bar increases as the deep water wave steepness increases, but for the bar type beach profiles the volume of the bar decreases as the deep water wave steepness increases.

Mathematical Model on the Crosshore Profile Dynamics: DPP for Windows. Application to the Study of San Andres Beach (Malaga, Spain)

J. M. Medina

Abstract

In this paper, a model on crossshore profile is shown. It is based on Battjes&Janssen (1.978) model, and it is being constructed under the auspices of CEDEX, European Commission (MAST-III program) and the Spanish Institution of Civil Engineers. It has been used successfully in some case studies. In this paper, most of the figures comes from a recent study performed at San Andrés beach (Malaga, Spain) where a research was carried out to find the probability of flooding derived from the sea level rise (due both to storm surges and climate change).

Beach Nourishment with Angular Gravel at Cala Gonone (Eastern Sardinia, Italy)

M. Pacini¹, E. Pranzini¹, G. Sirito²

Abstract

From Autumn 1994 to Spring 1995, approximately 23.000 m3 of angular limestone gravel was discharged on the beach of Cala Gonone (Eastern Sardinia, Italy) as a part of a wider project of beach nourishment. To protect the fill, five shoals were raised to reach mean sea level using loose basaltic blocks in order to simulate some natural shoals present along the coast of the study area.

Beach profiles and grain-size analysis performed in May 1996 showed that none of the fill material had dispersed offshore, whereas a limited amount of the gravel had moved longshore as predicted by a physical model run to test the effectiveness of the project. The shoals proved to efficiently protect the beach, as behind them the berm was lower.

The borrow material was graded by the waves to form bands of fine and coarse grains, but no significant relationship has yet been found between grain-size and beach morphology.

As regards rounding, the borrow material value was 0.2, which shifted to 0.4 over one year, giving the beach a reasonable quality to support the tourist industry.

Analysis of a Sand Sac Submerged Barrier: Case of a Beach In Riccione

M. Preti¹, Prof.Dr. A. Lamberti², L. Martinelli³

Abstract

Sand sac barriers as beach nourishment protection were used in North-East of Italy since 1983 because of its little environmental impact.

The present study analyses the effects of a low sand sac submerged barrier on beach profile, on the basis of the observations of a real case: Riccione South beach, where this kind of protection was built in 1996 and a monitoring program started in December 1994.

The effect on cross-shore sediment transport is studied also applying a one dimensional numerical model.

Data about older cases are used to investigate the durability of the sand sacs forming the barriers.

Physical Model Tests in the Framework of Beach Nourishment Performance Evaluation

P. Ruol¹, M. Capobianco², M. Tondello¹

Abstract

In the first part of this paper a quick review of the nourishment fundamentals, in terms of benefits and factors promoting the use of such interventions is given at first. The technical issues in nourishment planning are then described considering the specific questions of fill design, of morphological processes and of temporal aspects.

In the second part the contribution that physical model tests can give to the beach nourishment performance evaluation is presented and some results obtained by such experimental approach are presented.

Adaptation of Model of Dynamics of Gravel Beach Contour in the Conditions of The Black Sea North-Caucasian Coast

N.V. Yesin and S.B.Kuklev

Abstract

There is proposed a mathematical model of the gravel beach profile evolution. The results of calculation of the planned beaches on the North-Caucasian Black Sea coast are given. A conclusion has been made that the model can be applied for practical calculation after its further up-dating.

. M a t h e m a t i c a l   M o d e l i n g .

Three Dimensional Modeling of Hydrodynamic and Transport Processes in Ölüdeniz Lagoon

L. Balas, Prof.Dr. E. Özhan and C. Öztürk

Abstract

The developed three dimensional baroclinic mathematical model is capable of computing the water levels and water particle velocity distributions in three principal directions by solving the Navier-Stokes equations, and of simulating the density driven currents. The temperature (T) and salinity (S) variations are calculated by solving the three dimensional convective diffusion equations. These parameters influence the density (r=f(T,S,t,x,y,z)), and in return the velocity field. Solution method is a composite finite difference-finite element method. In the horizontal plane finite difference approximations, and in the vertical plane, finite element shape functions are used. Equations are solved implicitly allowing relatively large time steps, Courant Number being of the order of 30. The boundaries of the water area can be defined as movable boundaries. To take into account variations in vertical eddy viscosity, the two-equation k-? turbulence model is used. The model is applied to the Ölüdeniz Lagoon located at the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. With the financial support of the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK), a set of field measurements are performed to determine the current pattern in the lagoon and along the Belceğiz coast. Modeling results and measurements are presented and discussed in this paper.

3D Numerical Study of the Ebro Delta Zone Hydrodynamics

N.Durand¹, Dr. A. Fiandrino², Dr. S. Ouillon³, Prof.Dr. P. Fraunié⁴, Dr. P. Forget⁵

Abstract

The hydrodynamical study of the Ebro delta zone, located in the North-East of Spain, must take into account the numerous factors that influence the circulation in this area, as well as their complex interactions. In order to simulate these features, a three-dimensional hydrodynamical model is used. The model resolves the three-dimensional Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes and salinity equations by a finite volume method. In a first step, test cases are carried out, in order to show the ability of the model to simulate plume dynamics and to test the influence of wind on it. A more realistic situation is also simulated and corresponds to the real geophysical conditions encountered during a field campaign carried out in November 1996. In particular, visible satellite imagery (SPOT) acquired during the campaign provides us with suspended matter distribution maps. The analysis of these maps and the comparison with numerical results give us information on the general features of the circulation in the studied area.

A Closely Coupled Hydrodynamic/Pollutant Transport GIS Model

I.K. Tsanis¹ and S.J. Boyle²

Abstract

The development of a closely coupled two dimensional, hydrodynamic/pollutant transport GIS model is presented. Model functionality for data capture, data editing, preprocessing, embedded artificial intelligence, and result interpretation is described. The use of this GIS based interface module facilitates the improved communication of the basic patterns and relationships associated with hydrodynamic/pollutant transport simulation and the application of this information to water resources, planning and management. The functionality of this model will be illustrated through a case study on Suda Bay located in Crete, Greece.

Estimation of Primary Production in Mex Bay, Alexandria (Egypt) Applying the Aquatic Ecosystem Model FinEst

W. Labib¹ and P. Ennet²

Abstract

Mex Bay, west of Alexandria, Egypt, is a transitional marine system, subjected to progressive Man-made eutrophication, manifested by increasing phytoplankton production and development of regular visible algal blooms. Data collected in the bay during 1996 are used to pin point limiting growth factor/s and to estimate the primary production applying the aquatic ecosystem model FinEst.

The primary production is mainly a function of water temperature and light condition. It is concluded that nutrients affected by the land-runoff supply limit the growth in the top surface water layer. Light is the potentially limiting factor below the upper 1-2 m layer. The estimated primary production exhibits remarkable time and space variations.

Modeling Transport Processes In Beirut Bay, Lebanon

N. Kibar

Abstract

A three dimensional (3-D) mathematical model of water currents and transport of contaminants and nutrients has been applied to the coastal area between Beirut and Amchit, including effluent from different sources. The objective of this study is to estimate the effect of water circulation on pollution transport in the coastal area north of Beirut, using currents and water quality measurement data. Preliminary results from the model are presented and compared with field observations.

Modelling Wind Induced Recirculating Flows in Semi-Enclosed Bays Using a Non-Orthogonal Boundary-Fitted Coordinate System

Dr.R.W. Barber¹, Dr. L.J. Scott², N. Volakos³

Abstract

Boundary-fitted coordinate systems are becoming increasingly popular in computational hydrodynamics since they allow an accurate representation of curved flow boundaries. This paper presents details of a two-dimensional, depth-averaged numerical model which utilises a non-orthogonal coordinate transformation to solve the shallow water equations. The model has been designed to predict wind-induced circulation patterns in semi-enclosed bays of irregular shape. The scheme consists essentially of two modules: the first generates the non-orthogonal mesh within the prescribed flow domain using an elliptic grid generation technique, whilst the second solves the transformed non-linear shallow water equations in a stable and non-diffusive manner. The curvilinear approach provides an accurate representation of the complex shape of natural flow domains and avoids the approximate `staircase' perimeter which occurs in Cartesian finite-difference methods. The versatility of the model is demonstrated by simulating wind-induced circulation patterns in the Gulf of Thermaikos, a semi-enclosed bay close to the City of Thessaloniki in Northern Greece.

The Rivers Influence on the Seasonal Coastal Circulation of the Thermaikos Gulf

Dr. Y.N. Krestenitis¹, Dr. I.A. Valioulis², Dr. S.P. Christopoulos2, P.A. Hyder3

Abstract

River discharges into ambient sea-waters modify the environment over large areas of the shelf seas. The freshwater constitutes a large buoyancy input which tends to induce water column stratification and may drive significant current in the Regions.

Such a ROFI is formed in the central part of the shallow Thermaikos Gulf (NW Aegean Sea), which accepts the waters of three major rivers, Axios, Loudias and Aliakmon. Oceanographic data collected from March 1994 till July 1995 identify Thermaikos Gulf as a strong ROFI regime and demonstrate the variability of the rivers plume area and location under different run-off and meteorological conditions.

Using the Princeton Ocean Model (POM), a 3-dimensional baroclinic model, computer experiments were performed in order to understand the physics of the Thermaikos ROFI and explore some of its features. The simulations focused on the influence of the river discharge to the characteristics of the ROFI. Interpretation of the results of the simulations was facilitated by a parallel "no river flow" simulation experiment where the rivers were artificially turned off. An extension of the model to include a tracer substance was used to study the water renewal rates in the interior of the Thermaikos Gulf. From these simulations, it was shown that the rivers enhance the circulation of the inner Gulf.

The Black Sea Waters Influence to the Seasonal Baroclinic Circulation of the Aegean Sea

Y.N. Krestenitis¹ and I.A. Valioulis²

Abstract

The Princeton Ocean Model (POM), has been adopted for the Aegean Sea to simulate the hydrodynamic circulation during the period 1981-88, using the twice-daily NMC atmospheric data, the COADS cloud cover data and the Legates and Willmott precipitation.

An effort was made to quantify the influence of the Dardanelles outflow by switching off the Dardanelles exchange in a 1987 year simulation. The results of the calculations showed that the Black Sea waters influence within less than a year even the deep waters in the Northern Aegean. The energy introduced into the system by the Black Sea water outflow enhances vertical mixing.

Coastal Zone Development and Coastal Water Quality. Research and Teaching

Prof.Dr. I. Kantardgi¹ and Dr. N. Sapova²

Abstract

The modern decreasing of the duration of the Black Sea's coastal line in Russia, Ukraine, and Bulgaria results to the more intensive applying of coastal regions. Therefore, the increasing of the technological load to the coastal zone of the Black Sea may be excepted. The determination of the rational activities to protect the coastal zone environment is based on the management systems of the coastal zone.

The general approach to the practical applying of the management models of the coastal zone environment is analysing. To illustrate this approach, the distributions of the coastal water quality parameters along the Bulgarian coast and the correlative analysis of the sources of pollution are presented. These parameters were obtained by authors in 1989-1991 by collection and processing of the coastal water samples along the coast in several periods.

The hybrid approach, what includes the numerical modelling and simplified analytical estimations (complete mixing method) is suggested to decide the problem of coastal structure influence on the water exchange and water quality in the coastal zone. As a result, the comparative table of the typical coastal structures influence on the water exchange and water quality in the coastal zone was obtained.

. C o a s t a l   E r o s i o n   a n d   C o n t r o l .

Coastal Erosion and Protection of Ras El Bar, Egypt

R.M. Hassan¹ and S. A. Baset²

Abstract

Erosion at Ras El Bar, Egypt, has been continuous since the beginning of this century. Several protection works were introduced without achieving shoreline stable conditions. Starting 1991, a system of detached breakwaters was constructed and completed in 1995 protecting 1.8 km of Ras El Bar shoreline. This resulted in the formation of salients in the sheltered area leeward the breakwaters.

Bathymetric surveys were carried out before and after the construction of the breakwaters. Based on such surveys, profiles were prepared, the volumes of sand accumulated behind the breakwaters and gaps were calculated and the advance in shoreline was estimated. Such values, based on field surveys at Ras El Bar, were compared with corresponding calculated values based on physical and mathematical models as well as field results cited in literature to determine the criteria and approach to be used in the selection of detached breakwaters system and its associated morphological changes on the Nile Delta Coast.

Strong Erosion Scenario due to a Desequilibrium of Solid Transport Rate: The Case of Torrox Beach (Malaga)

J.M. Medina¹ and J.S. López²

Abstract

In this paper, Torrox Beach (Málaga) is presented as a specific case of strong erosion scenario due to a desequilibrium of solid transport rate. This scenario has been induced the wave rose to break its equilibrium due to the only appearance of West wave storms during the last nine years.

Necessity of Coastline Preservation in Romania

C. Nenciu

Abstract

In Romanian coastal zone important losses were registered together with a the increasing threaten on many natural, economical and social values: (i) 2,200 ha of beaches and sand dunes eroded, during the years 1962 - 1992, only for the shore sector of Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve, recognized as World Heritage Site (ii) partial losses of beaches of touristic importance, such like Mamaia Beach; (iii) littoral lakes ecosystems - i.e. Lake. Teckirgiol, Lake Sinoe, etc.; and (iv) road and railroad infrastructure. These losses are also important arguments for the necessity of coastline conservation. These problems are requiring a rethinking of the national environmental protection policy, in a way to include a specific strategy for coastline conservation. Included in this strategy, there must be several proposals of alternatives for coast defense against erosion.

The selection of the best alternative for the protection of the Romanian Shore against erosion, should be achieved, tacking into account the following major elements, as: (1) length of touristic beaches, where coastline retreat have to be counteracted; (2) length of beaches belonging to Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve, where erosion have to be counteracted; (3) lessening of beach surfaces together with interests/values jeopardized because of these; (4) the costs of shoreline maintenance and defense against erosion.

The purpose of this paper is to establish some preliminary steps, which should be considered in the development of an effective coastline conservation strategy.

Shore Protection Planning in Emilia-Romagna Region : A New Trend is in Act

M. Preti¹, E. Carboni² , C. Albertazzi²

Abstract

The Emilia-Romagna region (Northern Italy) has a coast 130 km long facing the Adriatic see. Morphologically the shore is all flat and sandy, economically it's the most important shore of Italy.

To protect the environment and the bathing tourism, the local authority started since 1975 an original policy of studies and interventions in the territory aimed to reducing the causes of coastal erosion.

The regional company Idroser (now called Agenzia Regionale Pianificazione Ambiente) produced in 1981 and 1996 two Coastal Plans: these have allowed to verify that this intervention strategy produced, in more than a decade, an important progress of the coastal state.

The applied strategy reversed the trend with respect to the 3 main erosion causes; indeed the subsidence decreases, the fluvial sediment discharge increases and, for the more recent designs, the building of emerged barriers has stopped, being replaced by the more long term effective typology of the protected nourishment.

. S e d i m e n t   T r a n s p o r t .

Sand Bottom Erosion in the Surf Zone of Norderney Island

Prof.Dr. R. Kos'yan ¹, Prof.Dr. H. Kunz², Dr. l. Podymov1, Dr. N. Pykhov3

Abstract

On the basis of a field experiment "Norderney-94" there are examined bottom deformations in the wave breaking zone, when there is the height modulation of waves approaching the shore with the frequency of tidal oscillations of the water level. Numeral calculation of the beach profile change, made according to SBEACH model (Larson, Kraus, Byrnes, 1990), shows a good coincidence with the observed data.

Bottom Boundary Layer Study for the Sediment Transport Modeling

R. Absi ¹, A. Abdelgader² and M. Bélorgey³

Abstract

In the field of coastal engineering there is a growing need of flexible methodologies, mainly based on numerical procedures, which allow to characterize and to estimate the factors, such as boundary layer, involved in sediment transport.

In the present paper a numerical model for the simulation of the bottom boundary layer generated by wave is developed, together with some validity tests of the current model carried out through the comparison with the results of the experimental study.

The analysis shows a good agreement between the results of the numerical model and the laboratory experiments data.

Dynamics of Spit Coasts of the Southern Baltic

Dr. E. Zawadzka

Abstract

Morphodynamic processes along the spits of coastal lakes and lagoons along the Southern Baltic coast are evaluated in the scale of the last 100 years. Morphogenesis of the spits, formed in various dynamic situations of the Baltic Sea during the Holocene, is discussed. These natural conditions are analysed, which decide about the resistance of the discussed stretches of spit coasts in the situation of increasing storm related risks and of sea level rise. The thickness of the littoral cover was investigated in the regions of the spits, and the composition of surface sediments and the morphology of the coast and nearshore zone are analysed in order to evaluate the dynamics of the the sediments of the dynamic layer. Spits of coastal lakes are an element of the Southern Baltic's erosion/accretion system. The danger to the spit coasts is assessed in aspect of their durability during the nearest 50 years. Synthetic data resulting from the analysis of geomorphological, geological and cartometric investigations may be used in planning of coastal protection systems and for management of coastal lake spits.

German-Russian Nearshore Dynamics-Experiment on Norderney Island

Prof.Dr. H. Kunz¹ and Prof.Dr. R. Kos'yan²

Abstract

An extended German-Russian field experiment on sediment transport had been carried out on Norderney island in 1994. The joint research program focused on combined measurements of suspended sediments, currents and erosion/accretion by breaking waves in the nearshore zone under tidal conditions. The experiment covered two moderate storm-periods; sound field-data had been recorded, which are useful for applied and basic research on calculations of the transport rates in cross- and longshore direction.

Hydrodynamic Contribution of Management and Erosion Control

M. Kassoul, H. Tabet Aoul, M. Belorgey

Abstract

The aim of this study is to analyze the characteristics of the boundary layer in the upstream of the bottom discharge. Its external conditions are, at the same time, function of both space and time. This study has been led by an analysis of physical similarity in a tunnel flow 0.5 m wide, 0.5 m high and 3 m long. Velocity measurements were made with a Laser Doppler Anemometer. The fine analysis of the velocity field within the boundary layer zone permitted us to define the different regimes of this and the different parameters associated (friction velocity, constraint of friction at the bottom, energy dissipated by viscous friction at the bottom, evolution of the average velocity and velocity fluctuations in the adaptable wall). These analysis permit us to determine the different laws of friction which govern a gradually varied boundary layer that generates a flow in the upstream of a hydraulic reserve.

. W a t e r   L e v e l   a n d   L o n g   W a v e s .

Effect of Mean Sea Water Level to Salt-Fresh Water Interface in Coastal Lagoons beneath the Sand Dunes

I. Fer¹ and Prof.Dr. S. Kapdaslı²

Abstract

Studies were carried out to investigate the effect of sea-water level rise due to tides and wave-setup, on sea water intrusion to coastal aquifers and the characteristic behavior of the salt-fresh water interface, using Dupuit - Forcheimer assumption. For this purpose, steady flow of a homogeneous, isotropic, unconfined coastal aquifer, having hydraulic gradient from the salt water region to the fresh water region is considered. Assuming a sharp interface (no dispersion) useful relationships have been established between the interface characteristics and shore properties. The study is modeled using Hele-Shaw Viscous Flow analogue and compared with the field measurements carried out in Köyceğiz - Dalyan Lagoon, Turkey. During field study, salinity measurements in canal leading Köyceğiz Lake to sea, a highly saline domain is examined near the basin which is successfully identified with the model.

Hydrodynamic Processes and Rise of Mean Sea Level

C.J. Blasi

Abstract

With the rise of mean sea level, there will be changes in the hydrodynamic processes. The aim of this study is to assess these changes by using a one-dimensional model on the tidal river Ems.

Tsunami Risk along the Alborán Seacoast

Prof.Dr. M. González¹,² and R. Medina¹

Abstract

Occasionally, the Alborán seacoast is affected by water waves generated by submarine earthquakes. Eight major tsunamis have been documented along the western Mediterranean seacoast since 1800. The purpose of this study is to establish tsunami-wave elevation at the shoreline versus the return period curves for different locations along the Alborán seacoast. An indirect statistical method has been used to estimate the elevation prediction at the locations. This method can be summarized as: (1) analysis of the global neotectonic setting, the geodynamic processes as well as seismicity of the region; (2) tsunami source model; (3) generation and propagation numerical model; and (4) the risk model. It is concluded that, the tsunamis generated in the Alborán basin have a medium to low intensity, with the most important elevations in the Málaga, Adra and Melilla areas.

. V a r i o u s   P o l l u t i o n   I s s u e s .

Adria Oil Plan A Project for Multi-lateral Spill Response Management in the Adriatic Sea

Dr.F. Cinquepalmi, A. Campagnol², Prof.Dr.A.Zitelli¹

Abstract

There is now an absolute need for the countries with Mediterranean coastlines to place naval traffic under close control, not only to ensure the safety of goods and passengers but also to protect an environmental, historical and landscape heritage that is amongst the most precious in the world and one that represents a comprehensive matrix of western civilisation. The need for close supervision of sea traffic, especially as regards oil tankers, is more urgent than ever given the high risks inherent in transporting hydrocarbons by sea.

This paper attempts to provide instruments for the guidance and control of shipping in the Adriatic Basin, where the risks are typical of those facing all the coasts of the "Mare Nostrum".

Metal Partitioning in Surface Sediments from Venice and its Lagoon.

P. Traverso¹, S. Scotto¹ , P. Pavan¹, F. Cecchi²

Abstract

The metal partitioning technique applied to the surface sediments in the narrow channels inside the historical center of Venice and in the middle part of the large Venetian lagoon allows detection of the influences of differences due to water removal (by tidals) and to anthropogenic pollution type and dumping. Due to anoxic conditions, the fractions of metals bound to organic matter/sulphydes was found to be far the largest, save in the channels of the historical center where large fraction of some metals were found in the carbonic phase. The consequences of these foundings are discussed.

An ICZM Approach : Land-Based Sources of Pollution and their Effect on the Submerged Archaeological Sites of Alexandria

W.A.N. Younes¹,², M.A.H. Saad¹, M.A.R. Abdel-Moati^1,3

Abstract

Alexandria is the second largest city of Egypt, located on the Mediterranean coast. Founded by Alexander the Great in 332 BC, the city started to gain its reputation after the construction of the famous Library and the Light-House (Pharos), one the seven wonders of the ancient world. After series of tectonic, tidal and severe sea level instability, most of its valuable parts disappeared, mostly submerged under the sea level.

Correspondence to: Walid A.N.Younes, Centre d'Océanologie de Marseille, Station Marine d'Endoume, Rue Batterie des Lions, 13007 Marseille, France.

Fax : 00 33 4 91 04 16 08/35, Tel : 00 33 4 91 04 16 00,

E-mail: younes@com.univ-mrs.fr

Alexandria. The Oceanography and Archaeology Departments of Alexandria University, organized an international interdisciplinary workshop in collaboration with UNESCO and the Supreme Council of Antiquities {International Workshop on Submarine Archaeology and Coastal Zone Management, Alexandria Case Study, 7-11 April 1997, Alexandria, Egypt}. The interest of this study is to combine an oceanographic study with an interdisciplinary scientific approach to set-up a protocol suitable for the better management of the coastal zone along the Egyptian Mediterranean with special regards to the submerged archaeological sites. An integrated reliable data base is needed urgently to find a quick solution for the case of Alexandria.